
'-...pi . . : v ;. ', ‘. •<} - r 


tf&tjC*) V; 

i' ; 




SSBS&wSl 

«£>&' 7tpb&4£b&t$hjf&&z. 











































































COHtfRlGHT DEPOSIT. 








THE GEOGRAPHY 

OF 

COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


BY 

W. F. ROCHELEAU 

Author of “Great American Industries” 

Formerly State Institute Conductor for Minnesota, later Department of Psychology ane 
Pedagogy, and Superintendent of Training School, Southern 
Illinois State Normal University 

* ? 


REVISED EDITION 


EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING CO. 


Boston 


New York Chicago 


San Francisco 




IOZ 7 

, 7 ? ^ 

I9Z 3 


Copyright, 1905, 1908, 1913, 1915, 1918 

By W. F. ROCHELEAU 


Copyright, 1923 

By W. F. ROCHELEAU 



l 

r 


ON 24 1923 


©C 1 A 760481 



PREFACE 


Of the multitude of pupils in our public schools, only a few reach the eighth 
grade, and even a smaller number enter the high school, yet those who terminate 
their school career thus early become bread winners and home makers, and 
constitute a large proportion of our citizens. Many of these young people leave 
school almost totally ignorant of sources of supply, processes of manufacture, 
and cost of our most common commodities. That a knowledge of the world’s 
great industries would give them additional power in solving the problems of life, 
and also make them more useful citizens, is the belief of the author of this work. 

The Geography of Commerce and Industry has been prepared to meet the 
needs of the junior high school and pupils of the eighth grade. It recognizes the 
dearth of reference works on many of the subjects treated, and has given the 
leading industries such treatment as to make each chapter a unit. 

The dependence of industries upon geographical conditions, the relation of 
man to his environment, and the effect of commerce upon civilization are clearly 
shown. The industrial life of our own country is fully treated, and then the relation 
of the United States to other countries, and of these to each other, are shown. 

The illustrations are chosen for the purpose of adding information and 
interest, and each map is made for the express purpose of emphasizing the feature 
that it represents. The relief maps were modelled by Mr. Georg Thorne-Thomsen 
of the School of Education, University of Chicago, especially for this work. 

Many of the questions are designed to awaken thought and lead to further 
study, and cannot be answered directly. By assigning them to different pupils, 
so that each will have one or more to investigate and report upon, they can be 
made to add much to the interest of the work. 

The less important countries are so grouped in chapters that, if desired, their 
study can be omitted without breaking the continuity of thought. 

The author is under special obligation to Mr. Oscar Brilliant, for many years 
a resident of Budapest, for the chapter on the countries of Southern Europe. 
Mr. Brilliant’s familiarity with this region makes his contribution one of unusual 


value. 


W. F. R. 


in 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

CONDITIONS THAT DETERMINE INDUSTRIES 

Page 

Climate.1 Industries and Commerce 

Soil and Vegetation ... 4 Transportation 


Page 

4 

G 


PART ONE 


THE UNITED STATES 


Chapter I 

Position, Surface and Climate 


Page 

7 


Chapter XII 

Manufacturing Industries 


Page 
. 109 


Chapter II 

Wheat. 

. 21 

Chapter XIII 

Important Manufactures . 

115 

Chapter III 

Corn. 

. 35 

Chapter XIV 

Other Industries 

125 

Chapter IV 

Live Stock .... 

. 45 

Chapter XV 

Trade Routes .... 

133 

Chapter V 

Cotton .... 

. 55 

Chapter XVI 

Great Cities .... 

153 

Chapter VI 

Fisheries .... 

. 63 

Chapter XVII 

New York and Chicago , 

169 

Chapter VII 


Chapter XVIII 

Exchange . 

185 

Forest Products 

. 67 


Chapter VIII 


Chapter XIX 

Trade Between the States . 

195 

Mineral Industries 

. 77 

Chapter XX 

Alaska and Our Island Possessions 


Chapter IX 


201 

Metals .... 

Chapter X 

. 81 

Chapter XXI 

Our Trade with Other Nations 

211 

Non-Metallic Minerals 

. 93 

Chapter XXII 


Chapter XI 


Commercial Growth of the United 

Rock and Soil Products 

. 105 

States . 

217 


IV 




CONTENTS 


v 


PART TWO 


COMMERCE OF FOREIGN NATIONS 


Chapter I 

Page 

Chapter X 

Page 

Dominion of Canada 

. 223 

Countries of Southeastern Europe 325 

Chapter II 

Mexico and Central America 

. 241 

Chapter XI 

Turkey .... 

. 343 

Chapter III 

South America . 

. 249 

Chapter XII 

Baltic States and Finland . 

. 34G 

Chapter IV 

The West Indies 

. 2S5 

Chapter XIII 

Russia. 

. 349 

Chapter V 

The United Kingdom 

. 289 

Chapter XIV 

India, Ceylon and the Straits 
Settlements 

. 357 

Chapter VI 

Germany .... 

. 299 

Chapter XV 

China. 

. 361 

Chapter VII 

France. 

. 305 

Chapter XVI 

Japan . 

. 367 

Chapter VIII 

Belgium, Holland, Denmark, 

Nor- 

Chapter XVII 

Other Asiatic Countries 

. 373 

way and Sweden 

. 311 

Chapter XVIII 


Chapter IX 


Australia and New Zealand 

. 375 

Spain, Portugal, Italy and Switz- 

Chapter XIX 


erland .... 

. 319 

Africa. 

. 381 



MAPS 


Annual Rainfall of the World 2 

Relief Map, United States ....... 16 

Annual Rainfall, United States ...... 18 

Wheat 22 

Corn 36 

Cotton 64 

Lumber 68 

Coal and Iron ......... 94 

United States.96 

Railroads .......... 132 

Canals ........... 142 

Sault Ste. Marie Canal 146 

Ocean Routes ......... 149 

Canada.225 

Caribbean Sea ......... 244 

South America, Steamship Routes ...... 248 

Panama and Panama Canal ....... 253 

Colombia and Ecuador ....... 255 

South America ......... 256 

Brazil, Location of Ports ....... 268 

Argentina, Products ........ 278 

Eurasia Relief Map ........ 297 

France ........... 305 

Holland and Belgium . . . . . . . .311 

Europe .......... 312 

Denmark .......... 315 

Norway and Sweden . . . . . . . .316 

Trans-Siberian Railway ....... 353 

Asia ............ 357 

Japan, Korea, Northeast China . . . . . 379 

Suez Canal.383 

Africa.. . . . 384 


vi 




INTRODUCTION 


CONDITIONS THAT DETERMINE INDUSTRIES 


About one-half of the people living on the earth occupy less than 
one-seventh of its surface. The chief causes of this unequal distribu¬ 
tion of mankind are: climate, conditions of soil, adaptation of plants 
to soil and climate, man’s ability to transport himself and the com¬ 
modities he needs from one locality to another, and his capacity to 
engage in commerce and manufacturing. 


Climate 


Temperature and moisture are the most important condi¬ 


tions of climate. In general, the earth is divided according 
to climate into the tropical, the temperate and the polar regions. The 
tropical regions are characterized by a high temperature, heavy rain¬ 
fall in some localities and vast arid regions in others. In the polar 
regions we find long, cold winters and short, hot summers. Where these 
regions are coldest, there are no forests, and the scanty vegetation con¬ 
sists of mosses and lichens with a few flowering plants that mature 
during the short summer. The reindeer, the polar bear, the walrus 
and some species of seal are the only animals that are valuable to the 
inhabitants. 

Well defined temperature seasons mark the temperate regions 
which are free from the extreme heat of the tropics and the blighting 
cold of the frigid zones. During spring and summer, plants grow and 
mature; during autumn and winter vegetation rests. It is necessary 
for the inhabitants of the temperate regions to produce and gather in 
summer most of the material they need for the winter. The people 
must be industrious and saving, always with a plan for the future. 
Within these regions are found the most valuable grains, fruits and 
other food products such as wheat, corn, the potato, the apple, the 
peach, the plum and many small fruits. The temperate regions are 



Medium 

Light 

Desert 
























































































































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


3 


likewise the home of the most valuable domestic animals—horses, 
cattle, sheep and swine. 

The inhabitants of the temperate regions have at their disposal a 
great variety of resources. They live in a climate that stimulates 



ELEPHANTS USED FOR PACK ANIMALS, CEYLON 


them to activity and amidst conditions that provide opportunities for 
a great variety of occupations. The temperate regions are best adapted 
to man’s development, and it is in these regions, especially in the north 







4 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


temperate zone, that the greatest nations have had their home and 
that civilization has made its most rapid progress. 

Soil and While man can live a long distance from his source of 
Vegetation supplies, because of the means of transportation he has 
perfected, it is much more convenient for him to have his sources of 
food, clothing and building material near at hand. Therefore, the 
great centers of population are and always have been in those regions 
where soil and rainfall produce an abundant harvest, such as valleys 
of the Ganges and the Nile, and the great prairie regions of North 
America. 

The plants cultivated to supply man’s needs have a wide range of 
climatic conditions. Cotton, for instance, requires a hot climate, 
while wheat and rye require a cool temperate climate and the range 
of wheat is from a medium to a cool temperate climate. Rice will 
succeed only where the land can be flooded, while corn thrives best in 
a dry soil where the annual rainfall is from thirty to forty inches. 
These conditions make agriculture profitable over extensive areas and 
in nearly all the agricultural regions we find a thriving population. 

It is only the savage who tries to supply all his needs 
Industries and himself. The further advanced a people are in 

Commerce civilization, the greater their number of wants, and 
the more difficult it becomes for each one to supply all his needs. 
Moreover, while numerous industries are carried on in almost every 
community, some localities are better adapted than others to a special 
line of industry. The rapid mountain streams of New England fur¬ 
nish abundant water power while the soil makes agriculture diffi¬ 
cult, consequently, the New England States early became the leading 
manufacturing center of the country. Because of their deep fertile 
soil and salubrious climate, the prairies of the Mississippi valley have 
become the most valuable agricultural region of the world. 

It is to the advantage of the inhabitants of each region to engage 
in those industries to which the region is best adapted. The great 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


5 


agricultural regions produce an abundance of food, a portion of which 
is exchanged with the manufacturing regions for clothing and other 
manufactured products needed on the farms. Again, one person has 
an aptitude for farming and another for making and operating machin¬ 
ery, and so on; it is to the advantage of each individual to follow the 



THE “ROCKET,” THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL LOCOMOTIVE 
From the photograph of a model in the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago 

occupation for which he has a special aptitude and exchange the prod-. 
ucts of his labor for the products of the labor of others. 

Trade began by the exchange of single articles between individuals, 
such as a bushel of wheat for a pair of shoes. It was soon discovered 
that such exchanges were profitable for communities as well as in¬ 
dividuals and trade was extended. This expansion has continued until 















6 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


all nations are now engaged to a greater or less extent in the exchange 
of commodities. 

Exchange of commodities created a demand for 
Transportation means 0 f transporting them. At first man was his 

own beast of burden and carried upon his head or back whatever com¬ 
modities he wished to exchange. Later he used boats whenever he had 
access to bodies of water. Then he domesticated animals and trained 
them to carry his burdens. From these simple beginnings the great 
systems of transportation, including ships, roads, railways and airships 
have been developed. 

Many of the products of the most highly civilized nations are 
now found in nearly all regions inhabited by man. 

QUESTIONS 

Why are not camels and elephants used as beasts of burden in the 
United States? 

What sort of wagon roads are found in your country? Can you tell how 
these roads might be improved? 

How is money for building and repairing roads obtained? 

Which would you prefer: a trip by rail or one by boat? Why? 

Why can electric railways be constructed where steam railways cannot? 

Of what advantage is the electric railway to those who live in the country? 

Why are locks placed in canals? How do they operate? 

Did you ever see any work that had been erected by the government to aid 
navigation? If so, what was it? 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


15 


to the Pacific coast. With the exception of the Canadian Pacific 
and the Grand Trunk Pacific, these lines are within the United States. 

The great wealth of this highland region lies in its mineral 
resources, of which gold, silver, and copper are the most import¬ 
ant. Since 1880, the gold and silver taken from these regions 
has amounted to more than $6,000,000,000, and the average annual 
output still exceeds $106,000,000. The location of the best of these 
mines has caused towns to spring up in their vicinity, some of 
which, like Leadville and Virginia City, for the time, became im¬ 
portant industrial centers. Coal measures also extend along the 
eastern border of the Rocky Mountains, but they are still await¬ 
ing development. Ore from which radium is obtained is found 
in Colorado and Utah, and extensive beds of oil shale are a 
valuable source of petroleum. 

tv. p •« qi West of the Rocky Mountains, and sepa- 

e aci e ope ra ^ e( j f r0 m them by the Columbian Plateau 

and the Great Basin, we find the Sierra Nevada and Cascade 
Mountains—two of the loftiest ranges on the continent. Many 
of their peaks attain an altitude of 12,000 to 15,000 feet, and are 
covered with snow throughout the year. Between these mountains 
and the sea are the parallel Coast Ranges. The intervening valleys 
constitute some of the most fertile farming country in the world. 
The most important of these are the Sacramento and the San 
Joaquin basins, which extend into the southern part of California; 
others extend northward into Oregon. Several streams have cut 
their way through these coast ranges to the Pacific, the most im¬ 
portant being the Columbia. 

The western slope of these mountains is well watered, except 
in the south, and their sides are heavily timbered from far in the 
north to the dry region of southern California. In Oregon and 
Washington a thriving lumber business is carried on in the moun¬ 
tain regions, while the fertile soil of the valleys produces abundant 



WATER FRONT, SEATTLE 

























































••Pfrlfkt, 1*01, tef Ge©rf Tfaorne-Thomteo 


KEi.rar Vi 





mi> SITATSf 









































































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


17 


crops of wheat, oats, corn and fruit. The valleys of California, 
in the northern and central portions of the state, grow excellent 
cereals and deciduous fruits; while the southern portion has 
become the most important fruit region of the country. Most of 



It was in one of these valleys in Central California that gold 
was discovered in 1848, and this discovery caused such a flood of 
immigration that California became a state in 1850, some years 
before the vast territory between the Mississippi and the Rocky 
Mountains was even open to settlement. Since the discovery of 
gold within her borders, California has been one of the leading 
gold-producing regions of the world. 

The Pacific coast line is much more regular than the Atlantic. 
San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound are the best harbors. On 
the first we find San Francisco, which is the commercial and finan¬ 
cial center of the Pacific States, while Seattle, Tacoma, and Port¬ 
land are important ports on the Sound and the Columbia River. 
Los Angeles and San Diego, the seaports of Southern California, are 
on the border of the richest citrus fruit region in the world. Steamers 
ply regularly between Seattle, Portland and San Francisco, and be¬ 
tween San Francisco, Los Angeles and San Diego, also between these 
ports and the Atlantic ports of the United States and the Pacific ports 
of South America. All Pacific ports have regular steamship connection 
with Hawaii, the Philippines, China, Japan and Australia, 

The latitude of the United States is such as to give 
VyijAA the country a climate ranging in temperature from 

semi-tropical in the extreme south to cool temperate in the north. 
East of the Rocky Mountain Highlands the temperature is affected 
but little by the altitude of the country, the low ranges of the 
Appalachian Mountains having only a local influence. The direc¬ 
tion of the mountain ranges allows north and south winds 
alternately to sweep over the vast interior, which subjects this 



IN INCHES 







































































































































































































































































































































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


19 


region to sudden and sometimes extreme changes in temperature 
during the spring and autumn months. In the northern half of 
the country the winters are cold and the summers hot. 

The great altitude of the Rocky Mountain Plateau gives to the 
entire western highland region a cooler climate than it would 
otherwise have. The Pacific Slope is influenced by the warm 
winds blowing over the Pacific, and has a warmer climate than 
places of corresponding latitude on the Atlantic coast. This region 
also differs from other portions of the country in having only two 
seasons, rainy and dry. 

The eastern half of the country has, without exeep- 
Rainfall an annual rainfall of more than twenty inches, 

and the precipitation is quite evenly distributed throughout the 
year. Both of these conditions are of great advantage to agricul¬ 
ture. A glance at the map shows that the Appalachian Highlands 
and Coastal Plain receive an average of from forty to sixty inches 
of rain, while two small areas, one on the Gulf of Mexico and the 
other in the mountainous regions of North Carolina and Tennessee, 
have more than sixty inches. The 100th meridian separates that 
portion of the Mississippi basin, which is suitable for agriculture, 
from the western portion which, on account of the lack of rainfall, 
is suitable for grazing only. A few narrow valleys among the 
Rocky Mountains receive a good supply of rain, but most of this 
region is dry because the altitude of the Sierra Nevada and Cas¬ 
cade Ranges is such that air currents on the eastern slope are 
o-iven a downward direction and are constantly growing warmer 
and having their capacity for moisture increased by dry winds 
blowing inland. The western slopes of these mountains and the 
intervening valleys are well watered because the incoming winds 
from the ocean are forced to rise over the mountains, and, being 
cooled, they precipitate their moisture, consequently, a section 
along the coast in Washington, Oregon, and Northern California 


20 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


receives more than sixty inches of rain annually. In general, the 
rainfall on the Pacific coast diminishes from Washington south- 
ward, and the southern part of California falls within the arid 
region. Here intensive farming is successfully followed by means 
of irrigation. 

This diversity of surface, soil, temperature, and rainfall, 
divides the United States naturally into well defined industrial 
regions, and the leading occupations in each have been determined 
by geographical conditions. 

QUESTIONS. 

What advantages do the United States derive from their geographi¬ 
cal position? Are any other countries similarly situated? 

How do you account for the numerous good harbors on the Atlantic 
coast? 

What is the fall-line? Account for its location. 

What portions of the Appalachian Highlands are best suited to 
agriculture ? Why ? 

Over what routes did the people who first settled Ohio, Kentucky 
and Tennessee cross the mountains? 

What are the boundaries of the prairie region in the United States? 
Why is this region so w^ell adapted to agriculture ? 

Why are not the Great Plains as well suited to agriculture as the 
prairies ? 

Describe the climate of the Rocky Mountain region. How do you 
account for it? 

How do you account for the heavy rainfall in some portions of Wash¬ 
ington, Oregon and in the northern part of California? 


Chapter IX 


WHEAT 


Wheat is one of the most valuable cereals and has been known 
from the earliest history. It was extensively cultivated by the 
Ancient Egyptians, and China knew it and used it more than 2000 
years B. C. It also constituted an important article of food of 
other nations of antiquity. From that time to the present, wheat 
has been the principal food for civilized peoples. Its origin is not 
known, but its home is supposed to have been somewhere in 
Western Asia. 


Wheat is adapted to a great variety of soils and 
climates, but thrives best in a soil formed from 
the decomposition of different kinds of rock that 


THE WHEAT 
PLANT 


have been thoroughly pulverized and contain a good amount of 
humus, or vegetable mold. Such soil is usually found in river 
basins, the beds of old lakes, and occasionally on the lower slopes 
in hilly regions. The plant requires a medium amount of rainfall, 
and the great wheat-growing regions are those that have from 
twenty to forty inches of rain annually, about thirty inches secur¬ 
ing the best results, provided the rain falls so as to supply the crop 
with water during the growing season. The plant should also 
secure its growth during cool weather either in early spring or late 
fall. Wherever these conditions of soil, rainfall and temperature 
exist, wheat can be successfully grown. These conditions are so 
varied over the wide range in which the plant is cultivated that a 
great many varieties have been produced, but these can all be 
grouped under two classes, winter wheat and spring wheat. 


21 



















































































































































































































































































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


23 


Winter Wheat 


Winter wheat is so called because it is sown 
in the autumn and remains in the ground 
until the next season. The time for sowing ranges from early in 
September to late in October, according to the locality and climatic 
conditions. In the warm portions of the wheat regions it is sown 
earlier than in the cooler portions. Winter wheat gets a good 
start in the fall months and matures in June or early in July of 
the following season. It is well suited to those localities that have 
a dry hot summer, as the conditions of climate necessary to its 
successful growth and maturity are met by sowing in the fall. 
Winter wheat is generally sown in the warm portions of the wheat 
belt, both in the United States and other countries. It yields 
well, and makes a good grade of flour. 

„ Spring wheat matures in less time than winter 

^ ° wheat, and can be sown in the spring and har¬ 

vested in the following July or August, except in the coolest por¬ 
tions of the spring wheat belt, where it does not reach maturity 
until the first of September. It is sown as early in the spring as 
the ground can be worked, and attains most of its growth during 
the hottest part of the season, maturing during the later summer 
months. There are numerous varieties of spring wheat, such as 
the red and the white, and the small berry and the large berry. In 
general, it furnishes a harder berry than winter wheat, and makes 
a flour of better quality. This wheat is adapted to the cool tem¬ 
perate regions, and can be grown successfully as far north as 
Hudson's Bay. 

At the outbreak of the European War in 1914, 

COUNTRIES ^he ^ ea( ^ n S wheat-producing countries of the 

world were the United States, Russia, British 
India, Canada, Argentina, Austria-Hungary, Germany and 
Roumania. Russia, Canada and Roumania were the only foreign 
countries that raised more than enough for their own consumption. 



HARVESTING WHEAT IN NORTH DAKOTA 









COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


25 


THE UNITED 
STATES 


The United States, Canada, Argentina and British India are the only 
important exporting countries since the war. Before the war Russia 
led the United States. 

Wheat culture in the United States began with 
the earliest colonization. This cereal early 
became the staple of the New England and 
Southern colonists, and it was successfully grown by the French 
in the Mississippi valley many years before the war which gave that 
region to the English. Wheat culture in this country has always 

followed the tide of immigration, 
until now the grain is raised in 
every state in the Union. In 
twenty-five of these winter 
wheat is grown, and in nineteen 
spring wheat, while some pro¬ 
duce both varieties. The condi¬ 
tions favorable to the production 
of wheat in the United States 
are found in the entire basin of 
the Red River of the North; the upper portion of the Mississippi 

basin as far south as the Des Moines River in Iowa; the Illinois River 
in Illinois, the flood plains of the Arkansas, and rivers of Kansas and 

Oklahoma; in Indiana as far south as the Wabash; all along the Lake 
Erie Slope of Ohio and New York, and in the Columbian Plateau and 
Sacramento basin on the Pacific coast. 

_ . The basin of the Red River of the North 
e pnng eat e t an( } Mi ss j ss ippj basin as far south as 

Des Moines, constitute the spring wheat region. Here the winter is 
long, the spring late, and the summer short. Wheat planted in the 
spring has opportunity to attain its growth before the hotter weather 
sets in. The period in which it ripens is usually free from rain, which 
assures the gradual maturing that secures the excellent grade of wheat 
for which the region is noted. 



WHEAT 












26 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


The Red River Basin 


The most important wheat region of the 
United States, and of the world, is in 
the basin of the Red River of the North and extending into Canada. 
Here are found the most extensive wheat farms in the world and 
here is raised the best quality of spring wheat. 



WHEAT HEADER AND THRASHER 

These farms are managed in the most systematic manner 
possible and the greatest care is taken to avoid waste of both labor 
and material. Formerly horses or mules were used for plowing, but 
on many of the larger farms gasoline traction engines have taken 
their place, and plows turning from ten to twenty-five furrows at a 
time are used. These engines are also used for harvesting. The 
plowing is done in the fall, and the seed is sown as early in the spring 
as the thawing of the ground will permit. This work is done by seed¬ 
ers which plant the seed and cover it at the same time. Harvesting 




COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


27 


takes place from the middle of August to the tenth of September, 
according to locality. The grain is cut and bound by self-binding 
harvesters. As harvesting must be accomplished within a short 
time after the grain is ripe, and a harvester can harvest only about 
ten acres a day, each farm requires a number of these machines. 
The modern harvesters carry the sheaves until a number are col¬ 
lected, when they are dropped. Workmen follow the binders and 
stand the bundles in groups called stooks, or shocks, so that they 
will dry as soon as possible. In some sections the wheat is stacked 
before thrashing, but in most cases it goes directly from the stook 
to the thrasher. 

As soon as the wheat is dry, it is thrashed. This work is 
done by steam thrashers which clean the grain, and with but little 
assistance stack the straw. The machines are driven by twelve- 
horse power engines, and will thrash from 1200 to 1500 bushels in 
a day. As the grain comes from the thrasher it is hauled to the 
granaries, or if sold, to the nearest elevator. 

Instead of marketing his wheat at the time of thrashing, a 
farmer may hold it until late in the season. If the price is good, 
it is to his advantage to market it at once. In either case it is 
shipped from the local elevator to some of the large wheat centers. 
The most important of these are Minneapolis, Duluth, Chicago 
and Buffalo. In these cities are found elevators capable of con¬ 
taining from 500,000 to 6,000,000 bushels of grain each. These are 
used for storing the wheat until it goes to the mills. Some of these 
large elevators are made of wood, but the later patterns are of steel, 
tile, or concrete, and are in the shape of huge tanks. Concrete 
is used in the construction of the elevator shown in illustration 
facing page 1. The elevators contain the most ingenious labor- 
saving devices for the handling of the grain; the labor expended 
upon it being confined to operating the machinery. 

This is well illustrated by an elevator at West Superior, Wis, 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


28 


This building is 230 feet high, and 135 feet wide, and is built 
entirely of steel. It cost over two million dollars, and will con¬ 
tain more than three million bushels of wheat. The machinery is 
such that with the labor of a few men, 600 cars of grain can be 
unloaded in a day. This means the handling of 400,000 bushels. 
As the wheat leaves the car, it is dropped into the basement 
where it is caught up by a series of buckets on an endless chain 
and carried to the top of the building, and put into bins which 
hold from 7500 to 15,000 bushels. Before being placed in the 
bins the wheat is weighed so that the exact amount is known. 
From the bins it is loaded directly into boats for shipment to Buffalo. 

This includes that portion of Iowa 
The Winter Wheat Belt sout h 0 f the Des Moines River, and the 

wheat growing portion of Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Indiana, 
Illinois and Ohio. The climatic conditions here are quite different 
from those in the spring wheat belt. The summers are long and 
hot, and the winters mild. If wheat were planted in the spring, it 
would grow during the hot weather of June and July, and the 
plant would produce a large quantity of straw and very little grain 
and that of poor quality. Many of the wheat farms of Kansas are 
large, and in some years that state has even led North Dakota and 
Minnesota in her production of wheat. Each of the other states 
also produce several million bushels. In Illinois and Indiana the 
farms are smaller, and in Ohio the cultivation is on small farms, 
largely on the plan of intensive farming, which secures a large 
yield per acre. Considerable wheat is also grown in western New 
York on the same plan. 


The Pacific States 


On account of the peculiar climatic condi¬ 
tions of California, Oregon and Washing- 
ton, this region furnishes a grade of wheat of high quality, but 
somewhat different from that grown in other portions of the 
country. Most of this is winter wheat, but on account of the 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


29 


dryness oi the climate the berry becomes nearly as hard as that of 
some spring varieties. The harvesting here is somewhat different 
from that in the valley of the Red River of the North. The grain 
becomes thoroughly dry before cutting, and in many places the 
harvester used cuts only enough of the straw to secure all the 
heads. The thrasher is attached to the harvester, so that the 
harvesting and thrashing are done at the same time and by the 
same machine. One of these machines requires the equiva¬ 
lent of twenty-two to twenty-four horses to operate it. The 
grain from this region is all sacked before shipping, and this has 
given rise to a thriving industry in the manufacture of gunny 
sacks. Most of this wheat is around in the states where it is 
grown, and the flour is exported to China and Japan. 

Wheat is transported by rail and by water. 

Transportation with the exception of that on the Pacific 

coast, it is carried in bulk, being run directly from the elevators 
into the car or ship, as the case may be. The average freight car 
will contain 675 bushels, and the task of moving a large crop taxes 
the railways to their utmost capacity. Transportation by water is 
much cheaper than by rail, consequently, much of the wheat 
destined for European markets is shipped to Duluth or Chicago, 
and thence by water to Buffalo where it can be reloaded into canal 
boats and carried to New York via the Erie Canal and Hudson 
River. Many of the steamships on the Great Lakes can carry 
cargoes of more than 250,000 bushels. 

The wheat berry, or the kernel, as it is commonly 

FLOUR J • 

called, has a somewhat complex structure. If a kernel 

is carefully split through the middle, and the exposed surface 
examined by a powerful microscope, we find that the inside of the 
berry is filled with white granules of almost pure starch. Sur¬ 
rounding this is a coating which has a yellowish tint. This 
coating is nearly all gluten, the most nourishing and valuable part 


30 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


of the berry. Outside of the gluten is a covering of bran. This 
is arranged in five coats, each differing from the other in structure 

o 7 o 

and appearance, but all are made up of wood fiber, wholly worthless 



WHEAT Oft YE R 


SIMPLIFIED 

MODEL 


FLOUR 

MILL 


„ I ' BREAK ROLLS 
ftw CORRUcATFO 


•QWAOtN G R EE'L 


’•*t01 


RE&2IVING 

SEPARATOR 


^ jf* OUST 
^ b COLLECTOR 


SMOOTH 


aouR 

BOLTER 


2 *^ REDUCTION 
i ROLLS 


WHEAT WASHER 


i > - ‘zfr 


(Courtesy Washburn-Crosby Co., Minneapolis, Minn.) 


as an article of food. At the one end of the berry, and within the 
bran coats, we find the germ, which must be separated from the 
other parts in order to obtain flour of the best quality. 



















































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


31 


The milling of wheat has for its purpose the crush- 
Milling* j n g } )err y an( j converting the starch and gluten 

into flour. When the wheat enters the mill, it is first cleaned, 
during which process all imperfect kernels and seeds of other 



DISSECTED WHEAT KERNEL, MAGNIFIED 

(Courtesy Washburn-Crosby Co.) 


A Germ 

B Gluten cells predominate 
C Starch cells predominate 
D Interior coat of bran 


E Tester, coloring matter of bran 
F Endocarp 
G Epicarp 
H Epidermis 


plants are removed. The dust is then removed by running the 
wheat through a series of rapidly revolving brushes, through which 
is passed a blast of air. In some of the best mills the wheat is 










32 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 

steamed a short time before grinding. This prevents the bran 
from breaking into such small particles that, when ground, it can¬ 
not be separated from the other parts of the berry. 



PACKING ROOM IN A LARGE FLOUR MILL 

The wheat is ground by passing through series of steel rollers, 
those in each set being closer together than in the one preceding. 
After being thoroughly ground in this manner, it passes through 
the separators which remove the bran and the germ. Several 
grindings and siftings still follow before the flour is perfected. It 
is then exposed to a blast of air to cool it, when it is ready to be 














COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


33 


packed for shipment. Flour is packed in barrels and sacks. A 
barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds; the sacks are of half-barrel, 
quarter-barrel, and eighth-barrel sizes. It usually requires four 
and a half bushels of wheat to make a barrel of flour. 

The large milling centers are naturally near or at the large 
shipping centers, but we find small mills located all over the wheat 
belt. To these mills many farmers sell their wheat, and from 
them flour is sent, not only to supply the local trade, but to many 
distant cities and states, and sometimes to foreign countries. The 

capacity of these small mills ranges all the way from 100 to 1000 

barrels a day. Minneapolis 
is the greatest milling center 
of the world. In this city are 
found single mills capable of 
producing 15,000 or more 
barrels of flour in 24 hours, 
and the full capacity of this 
milling center is more than 
60,000 barrels a day. 

The United States is 
the leading wheat-producing 
country of the world. It 
now raises one-fifth of the world’s supply, and the tendency is to 
increase rather than to diminish this output. Our position as a 
wheat country is due, not only to the vast extent of our wheat 
lands, but to the ingenuity of American inventors in producing, 
and the intelligence of the American farmers in using, our agri¬ 
cultural machinery, without which the cultivation of the great 
farms would be an impossibility. The only other country that 
approaches the United States in this respect is Canada, where 
we find the same thrift, energy, and intelligence as in the United 
States. Our annual production of wheat is about 900,000,000 


United States 


Rest of the World 


WHEAT 




34 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


bushels. The value in 1915 was $912,887,793. Previous to 1915 
the leading countries in this trade were Russia, Argentina, British 
North America, Africa and France; while the largest purchasers 
of flour are the United Kingdom, Holland, China, Cuba, and the 
West Indies. Small quantities also go to Brazil, Japan, and Africa. 
The average consumption of wheat in the United States is about 
four and a half bushels for each individual, and it requires about 
two square feet of land to raise enough wheat to make a loaf of 
bread weighing a pound. 


QUESTIONS 

What are cereals? Why are they so called? 

Between what parallels of latitude are the great wheat countries of the world 
situated? 

Is wheat raised in your vicinity? If so, is it spring or winter wheat? 

What inventions have contributed to make the United States the greatest 
wheat-producing country in the world? 

Why is wheat such a valuable article of food? 

Make a list of all the uses of wheat? 


« 


Chapter III 


HISTORY 


CORN 

In its broadest meaning the word corn applies to all cereal 
grains. The Scotch call oats corn; to the Englishman an ear of 
corn signifies a head of wheat; while in some of the countries of 
Northern Europe, rice and corn mean the same thing. But in the 
United States the word means Indian corn, or maize. 

Corn is the cereal of the New World. When 
America was discovered, the natives were found 
using various preparations of this grain, and it was from this be¬ 
ginning that the use of corn was extended until it has reached 
its present limit. 

Corn was originally a semi-tropical plant, but the rude method 
of cultivation by the Indians extended its area as far north as New 
York and the New England States, and now by far the greatest 
quantity is raised in the temperate regions of the Old and New 
Worlds. Besides the United States, we find the countries of 
Southern Europe and India now raising considerable quantities of 
corn, and its cultivation has been introduced into Argentina and 
other countries. , 

Corn is a tender plant, and at any period of its 
growth it is easily damaged by frosts. The seed 
cannot be planted until the season is sufficiently 
far advanced to abow the growing corn to escape late frosts, and 
the region in whicn it is grown must have a late warm autumn, 
almost without rainfall, otherwise the grain will not ripen. Corn 
thrives best on a rich loam, and most of it is raised on a heavy 

clay loam composed of finely ground rock from which the plant 

35 


THE CORN 
PLANT 



! Areas of largest culture 
] Areas of smaller culture 














































































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


37 


food has not been washed. The plant produces most abundantly 
where the rainfall is from thirty to forty inches, falling mainly in 
spring and winter. It thrives much better on dry land than on 
that which is wet or abundantly moist. Since the plant absorbs a 
large quantity of moisture from the atmosphere, it often thrives in 
localities where the rainfall is not sufficient for the best results in 
raising wheat, oats and other small grain. 

There are many varieties of corn, each of which seems to be 
suited to a definite purpose, and some are especially adapted to 
certain localities. The small, hard, yellow corn will mature in a 
shorter season than some of the larger varieties, and can be suc¬ 
cessfully grown in New England, and the northern parts of Wis¬ 
consin, Minnesota and the Dakotas. Sweet corn is raised for 
eating green and for canning, while popcorn is considered some¬ 
thing of a luxury and is not raised in large quantities, although 
the crop when successful is more profitable than almost any other 
that the farmer can produce. When we speak of corn without any 
qualification of the term, the large dent corn is meant. The 
quantity of this variety raised in the United States exceeds many 
times that of all others combined. 

Corn is grown in nearly all of the states east of the 
Great Plains, and in many of them a sufficiently 
large yield is secured to make the crop a profitable 
one ; but in only a few does the raising of corn constitute the chief 
industry. These states form what is known as the corn belt, and 
are Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. 
Within their boundary is produced nearly nine-tenths of all the 
corn grown in the United States, and within this region we find 
the conditions essential to the most successful cultivation of this 
orain. It will be noticed that a number of these states also belong 
to the wheat belt. 

The wheat is grown mainly along the flood plains of the rivers 


THE CORN 
BELT 


38 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


and in old lake bottoms where the soil is of the fine silt variety 
required by that grain. The corn occupies most of the land in this 
belt which is higher and drier. Therefore, except in Kansas, the 
wheat production in these states is very small compared with the 
corn crop. 

We do not find in the corn belt any such large farms 

Tillage • ° 

5 as the bonanza farms of the wheat region. In the 

eastern states, the farms are small, seldom exceeding 240 acres. 
But as one goes westward, he finds the average size to increase 
until in Western Iowa, Nebraska and Kansas, 400 or more acres 
may be included in a farm. There are a few exceptions to this 
rule, where a syndicate, or some enterprising farmer, has pur¬ 
chased a number of farms and operates them all under one manage¬ 
ment. Much that has been said about the treatment of land in the 
raising of wheat applies also to the raising of corn. The land is 
plowed and prepared for the seed in about the same way for both 
grains. Corn, however, is planted in rows so that the hills are 
equally far apart each way. One looking at a field of growing 
corn early in the season, notices that the rows run both ways and 
at right angles to each other, and that they are about three feet 
apart. When the corn is small this seems to be a waste of ground, 
but by the middle of the season the plants have become so large 
that the leaves of one hill touch those of the next. 

The seed is usually planted from the first to the middle of 
May, according to locality. The work is done by a planter drawn 
by horses, and so gauged that it drops the seed and covers it at 
equal intervals of space, making the fields resemble a checker 
board when the plants appear. A careful operator will plant his 
field so regularly that the rows will be straight in each direction. 
The young plants are very tender, and when they have attained 
the height of five or six inches tillage begins. In order to keep 
the soil loose and moist about the roots, and to keep down the 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


fill 


weeds, the ground must be cultivated every weak or two until the 
plants become so large that the cultivator can not be drawn between 
the rows without injuring the crop. The field is then laid by for 
the corn to fill and ripen. In respect to tillage corn presents a 
marked contrast to wheat which covers the ground so thickly that 
cultivation is impracticable. 

This necessity for cultivating the land makes corn a more 
expensive crop to raise than wheat. In good soil the most thrifty 
plants attain a height of from sixteen to eighteen feet, but the 
average height is from seven to eight feet. Each stalk bears sev- 
eral ears. The yield varies from thirty or forty to as high as 
eighty bushels per acre, though the latter result is seldom attained. 
The crop is usually harvested about the middle of September, or 
it may remain standing longer if conditions make it necessary. 

Formerly the harvesting was all done by hand. 

Harvesting Only the ears were collected from the stalks which 

were left standing, but now the corn harvester does the work in a 
manner quite similar to that of the self-binder employed in harvest¬ 
ing wheat. The bundles of corn are stacked in shocks for drying. 
Husking is commenced at the earliest possible date. Numerous 
machines have been invented for doing this work, but until recently 
they have not proved satisfactory, and most of the husking is still 
done by hand. This task is of such magnitude that it often engages 
the entire population for several weeks. After husking, the ears 
of corn are stored in cribs, which are large sheds having their sides 
made of narrow strips of board with wide openings between them, 
so as to permit a free circulation of air. The corn remains in the 
cribs until it is thoroughly dry, when it is ready for use. 

While not as valuable as wheat, taken bulk for bulk, 

USES 

corn is more widely used because it is more suitable for 
so many di fie rent purposes. Corn is very wholesome and nutri¬ 
tious. and it is estimated that it is used as a food by a larger 


40 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


number of people than any other cereal except rice. Its most 
extensive use, however, is for fattening stock, and we find that the 
states in which the corn belt is located supply our markets with a 
large number of hogs and cattle. In many cases where corn is fed 
to stock, it is not husked. 

Corn is shelled or thrashed by machines driven by steam- 
power. The largest of these will thrash from 2500 to 4000 bushels 
in a day. It is only the shelled corn that is shipped from the regions 
in which it is grown. This constitutes about one-fourth of the crop, 
the other three-fourths being used for purposes already stated. 

Corn is one of the most useful of plants, and from it a large 
number of products are made. When ground, the kernel forms 
meal, which is usually placed on the market in three grades, coarse, 
medium and fine, the last being nearly as fine as wheat flour. But 
before the kernel is ground into meal the hull and the germ are 
removed. From the germ, corn oil is made and the refuse when 
ground is placed on the market as gluten meal, and is a valuable 
stock food. The oil is used for lubricating machinery, in making 
paints, and when refined, as a substitute for olive oil for salads. But 
the most remarkable of all is that from this oil is made a good 
quality of rubber. One of the most important products obtained 
from corn is starch. The largest starch factories are at Oswego, 
N. Y., and on Long Island the annual output exceeds 20,000,000 
pounds. Glucose is also of great importance and about 60,000,000 
bushels are consumed yearly in its manufacture. It is extensively 
used in canning fruits. Mixed with ten per cent of cane syrup 
it forms corn syrup or karo. All are familiar with corn flakes, 
and hominy in its various forms is also widely known as a nutri¬ 
tious and wholesome food. When fermented, corn is one of the 
chief sources of alcohol and other spirituous liquors. Millions of 
bushels are consumed in their manufacture. The largest distilleries 
in the country are at Peoria and Pekin, Illinois. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


41 


In addition to many uses for which the grain itself is valuable, 
we find numerous uses for other parts of the plant. The stalks are 
nutritious and form a valuable fodder for cattle, either after they 
become dry or when they are green. In fact, the green corn in the 
form of fodder constitutes the principal feed for cows in many of 
the dairy districts of the country. For fodder, the corn is planted late 
in the season, and the crop is harvested when the ears begin to harden. 
The plant is cut into small pieces and packed into air-tight compart¬ 
ments, called silos, from which the feed is taken as needed dur¬ 
ing the winter. The pith is used in the manufacture of smokeless 
powder and for packing under the armorplate of warships. When 

wet, the fiber swells rapidly, 
and in case of injury to the 
ship, it prevents leaking. The 
husks are employed in the 
manufacture of mattresses and 
for making some kinds of pa¬ 
per. In the fruit regions they 
are also extensively used in 
packing fruit. The cobs are 
used for fuel and in the manu¬ 
facture of cob pipes, and a “corn 
down,” which is formed in the 
manufacture of the pipes, is used 
in upholstery. 


United States 


Rest of the World 


PRODUCTION 


The United States is the largest corn-producing 
country, raising three-fourths of the world’s crop. 
The growing of corn supports more people than any other branch of 
agriculture. In 1920 the corn crop amounted to 3,232,367,000 
bushels and it was valued at $2,189,721,000. This exceeds 
the value of the wheat and cotton crops combined, which 
are our two next largest agricultural products. Thus we 




42 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


see that corn growing is our most important, as well as our most 
valuable, industry. The successful raising of this grain has given 
the states in the corn belt most of their wealth and also led to the 
establishment, within their borders, of many of the great 



AN OLD STYLE ELEVATOR 

industries now found there. The farmers of the corn belt 
are invariably prosperous, and most of them have acquired 
considerable fortunes by their industry. The people of foreign 
countries have not yet learned the value of corn to any great 
extent, and in order to market the vast crop raised in the country, 







COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


43 


the farmers have to convert a good part of it into beef and 
pork. 


The methods described for the marketing and transportation of 
wheat also apply to corn and need no further description. 

OTHER The °^ ier cereals forming important crops in the 
CEREALS United States are rice, oats, barley, rye and buck¬ 
wheat. Rice is grown in the South, especially in 
Louisiana and Texas, and in California. It requires a warm climate 
and low ground that can be flooded after planting. It constitutes one 
of the most valuable food plants in the world, and its culture is rapidly 
increasing in the United States. Oats grow farther north than corn 
or winter wheat, but thrive well in regions where spring wheat is 
raised. Barley has about the same range as wheat, and is extensively 
used in the manufacture of malt liquors. Buckwheat grows rapidly 
and matures early. It is valuable for fattening hogs, and the flour 
made from it is an important article of food, 


QUESTIONS 

Of what use was corn to the Indians before they became acquainted with 
the white men? 

How did the corn which the Indians raised compare in quality and quantity 
with that now raised in the best portions of the corn belt? How can you account 
for the difference? 

Which is the more productive plant, wheat or corn? Which is the more 
useful? 

Why is wheat so much more extensively used in Europe than corn? 

Name the most important purposes for which corn is used. 

What other cereals besides wheat and corn constitute important crops in the 
United States? 



A STOCK FARM 








Chapter IV 


LIVE STOCK 

The raising of live stock is a valuable and important industry, 
and extends over nearly the entire agricultural portion of the 
country. Cattle are raised for beef and dairy products, horses for 
draft and driving, sheep for wool and mutton, and swine for pork. 
The important part of this industry naturally centers in those 
regions where conditions are especially adapted to its success. 

The principal grazing regions are found in the western portion 
of the Great Plains, including most of Montana, east of the moun¬ 
tains, portions of'Wyoming, the western part of Nebraska, Okla¬ 
homa and Texas. The region is semi-arid, having only sufficient 
rainfall to produce a good growth of grass. The climate is tem¬ 
perate, and remarkably well suited to stock raising. Late in the 
summer the grass dries and may be harvested and stacked like hay 
in other regions, or left standing for the stock to feed upon during 
the winter, as they feed upon the green grass in spring and 
summer. The grazing region is in marked contrast to the rich 
agricultural region to the east, and to which many of the cattle are 
sent for fattening before being marketed. 

Dairying is successful only in those regions where 
good crops of alfalfa, corn and grass can be grown, 
since the cows must have plenty of sweet, juicy feed in order to 
produce an abundance of milk of good quality. The best dairy 
conditions are found in the northern states bordering on the Missis¬ 
sippi. Of these Wisconsin and Iowa take the lead, producing a 
larger quantity of dairy products than any other states in the Union. 
They are followed by Minnesota and Illinois. Good dairy farms are 

45 


DAIRYING 


46 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


also found in the central part of Nebraska and Kansas, and in the 
northern portion of Indiana, in Ohio and New York. In the north¬ 
ern New England States dairy husbandry has replaced the general 
farming that formerly characterized the agriculture of that region. 
The United States contains about 22,000,000 milch cows, and 
makes about 1,622,000,000 pounds of butter, 320,000,000 pounds 
of cheese and 500,000,000 pounds of condensed milk a year. 

Most of the butter and cheese marketed are made in factories. 
The butter factories are usually known as creameries. Each 

creamery receives the milk from 
the cows of quite a large re¬ 
gion, and makes butter on a 
large scale. The cream is sep¬ 
arated from the milk by a 
machine called the cream sep¬ 
arator. The separator revolves 
.at a very high speed, and since 
the cream is lighter than the 
milk, it is brought ti the top 
and flows out through a tube, 
while the milk flows from a similar tube below. When in opera¬ 
tion, a stream of milk flows into the separator, and streams of 
cream and skimmed milk flow out. Cheese factories also receive 
the milk from surrounding dairies, and operate on a large scale. 
Nevertheless, fully one half of the butter and cheese made in the 
country is made on small farms and wholly by hand labor. Most 
of this is consumed where it is made. 

Jerseys, Holsteins and Ayrshires are the best breeds of cattle 
for dairy purposes, since their cows yield an abundance of milk of 
good quality, and the steers are easily fattened for beef. But 
while these steers make excellent beef, they are small and not as 
profitable for marketing as those of the larger breeds. 


United States 


Rest of the World 


CATTLE 




COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


47 


The total value of the dairy products is about $2,768,000,000, 
which is greater than the value of the wheat, corn, and cotton crops 
combined. About one-third of the dairy products is exported. 

BEEF Dair y in S anc ^ raising cattle for beef are two distinct 
branches of the livestock industry. Nevertheless, some 
states are noted for their dairy products and their beef. Formerly 
most of the beef cattle came from Texas and the states bordering 
on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, because extensive 
grazing regions could be secured in these states at a nominal cost. 

But now that large portions of 
these grazing regions have been 
placed under cultivation, the 
number of beef cattle in them 
has diminished and more cat¬ 
tle are raised in the corn¬ 
growing states. The leading 
states in the production of 
beef cattle are Texas, Iowa, 
Nebraska, Kansas, California, 
Missouri, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Oklahoma and Illinois. The 
Shorthorns, or Durhams, the Herefords, the Polled Angus and the 
Galloways are the best beef breeds. 

Cattle are pastured until they are about three years old. Those 
that have become fat are shipped to market from the ranches. The 
others are usually sold to farmers in the corn-producing states, where 
they are fed on corn during the winter, then for a short time in the 
spring they are pastured on good grass, when they are ready for mar¬ 
ket. Many steers under two years of age are fattened and sold as 
“baby beef.” This is the most choice beef on the market and it brings 
the highest price. There is less profit to the farmer in cattle over 
three years old, although they may have greater weight. 


United States 


Rest of the World 




48 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


United States 


Best of tbe World 


wool 


PORK raisin S sw i ne i s another important branch of the 

live stock industry. The United States contains about 
68,000,000 of hogs, valued at $571,890,000. They are raised 
most successfully where the grain upon which they are fattened 

is the most cheaply produced, con¬ 
sequently we find the largest num¬ 
ber of hogs in the corn region. 
The Berkshires, Poland-China and 
Jersey Reds or Durocs are the most 
successful large breeds. The best 
animals from any of these breeds 
weigh from 500 to 600 pounds at 
the end of eighteen months. The 
Victorias, Essex, and Suffolks are 
the most common small varieties. 
They mature early, but seldom exceed 300 pounds. 

Sheep raising is profitable in dry, mountainous 
regions, where grazing is good, and we find 
these conditions among the foot-hills bordering 
the Great Plains, and in numerous valleys of the Rocky Mountains. 
The leading wool-producing states in the Rocky Mountain region 
are Wyoming, Montana, New Mexico, Idaho, California, and Utah. 
Texas, Ohio, Michigan, and New York are the leading states lying 
outside this region. While large portions of the former grazing 
regions have been placed under cultivation, the plan of leasing govern¬ 
ment lands for grazing purposes, under the supervision of the Bureau 
of Forestry, admit of large areas still being used for pasturage. There 
are about 50,000,000 sheep in the country and by far the larger num¬ 
ber of them will be found within the grazing regions of the Great 
Plains and the Rocky Mountains. 

Sheep are valuable for wool and mutton, but sheep-growing 
regions are ranked in accordance with the amount of wool they 
produce. Wherever we find conditions similar to those described 


MUTTON AND 
WOOL 




COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


49 


above, we find wool-growing countries. Besides the United States, 
Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, and the States of the Union of 
South Africa produce the largest quantities of wool and mutton. All 
these countries are exporters. 


of 


South 

Africa 


United 

Kingdom 


United States 


Argentina 


Australasia 


WOOL 


Wool fiber is composed of small scales overlapping like'the scales 
a fish. The ease with which these move upon each other 

makes wool and wool¬ 
en goods very soft. It 
also causes the thread 
to shorten when wet, 
so that great care has 
to be taken when 
washing woolen fab¬ 
rics to keep them from 
shrinking. 

Sheep are graded in accordance with the quality of wool they 
produce, coarse-wooled, medium-wooled, and fine-wooled. Cotswolds 
and Leicesters are the best coarse-wooled breeds; Southdowns the 
best medium grade, and the Merinos the best fine-wooled 
sheep. Southdowns are the best for mutton, and Merinos are the 
poorest. Large numbers of sheep are slaughtered each year for 
meat. 

In 1920 the wool crop of the United States amounted to 205,- 
307,000 pounds, which is about one-sixth of the world’s production. 
In addition to this amount 445,893,000 pounds were imported. The 
largest manufactories of woolen goods are in the New England and 
Eastern States. 


The meat-packing centers are located at Chicago, 
MARKETING Omaha, Kansas City, St. Joseph, Fort Worth, 

Cincinnati, Sioux City, St. Paul and New York. Cattle are trans¬ 
ported to these centers in stock cars constructed especially for the 
purpose. The cars are provided with troughs for feed and water, 















50 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


and the trains are run so as to cover the distance in the shortest 
possible time. At each one of these centers are stockyards, into 
which the animals are unloaded immediately upon their arrival. 
Here they are sold to the packing-houses, and for export. 

Slaughtering and Packing The large slaughtering houses and 

rendering establishments are situ¬ 
ated in the midst of the stockyards, and animals destined for 
slaughter are driven up an inclined viaduct to the top of the build¬ 
ing where they are killed. As the carcass of the animal passes from 
one process to another in the course of its preparation it descends, 
until finally the dressed sides are sent to the cold storage rooms 
on the ground floor. 

The system and despatch attending the work of slaughtering 
and meat packing are sedom equalled in any other line of industry. 
In some of the great packing-houses of Chicago, cattle are killed 
at the rate of eight a minute, which makes 4000 in a day. Within 
forty-five minutes from the time the animal is killed, the dressed 
sides of beef are hanging in the cold storage room, and they have 
passed through the hands of 150 workmen during the process of 
preparation. Hogs are killed at about the same rate, though the 
time required for dressing is much less. A single workman kills 
hogs at the rate of four a minute, and within twelve minutes after 
the pig is stuck his dressed sides are in the cooling room. 

Excepting a very small quantity which is sold as fresh meat, the 
pork is prepared for use before shipping. This preparation con¬ 
sists in making it into sausage, bacon, salt pork, and pickled hams. 
Most of the beef is shipped in sides or quarters, which are trans¬ 
ported in refrigerator cars. When exported to foreign countries, 
it is loaded from the cars into refrigerator ships so that it reaches 
its destination in as good a condition as though it had been killed 
at the market where it is offered for sale. 

In no industry is greater care taken to prevent waste. Every 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


51 


part of the animal is worked up into some useful product, which 
can be exchanged for value. The most important of these by¬ 
products are hides and leather, lard, tallow, glue, soap, and fertil¬ 
izer. The horns and hoofs are made into combs and buttons, the 
bristles into brushes, and the hair into felt. The revenue derived 
from these sources is nearly sufficient to pay the expense of main- 



BEEF IN A COLD STORAGE ROOM IN A LARGE PACKING HOUSE 


taining the rendering establishments, and without this it would be 
impossible to place the beef, pork, and mutton which they produce 
upon the market at the prices for which these articles are sold. 

The United States produces more meat than any other 
VALUE country. About 20,000,000 cattle, 40,000,000 hogs 
and 14,000,000 sheep are slaughtered each year under government 










UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO 

























COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


inspection, and in addition to these large numbers of animals were 

slaughtered on farms and in small abattoirs. The value of the 

recorded output for the year was $266,795,608. Chicago is the 
largest meat-packing center in the world. The other important 
centers in the United States, in the order of their output, are Kansas 
City, Omaha, Saint Joseph, Fort Worth, Sioux City, Indianapolis, 
Oklahoma City, and Wichita. 

Owing to the increase of population in the United States and 

the placing of large areas of grazing land under cultivation, the 

export of meat products decreased rapidly between 1904 and 1914. 
In the latter year the European War began to change conditions,, 
and such large quantities were exported to meet the demands of 
England, France, and a number of neutral countries, that the prices 
of all meat products became unusually high. After the war, prices de¬ 
clined slightly, but in 1923, they had not reached the pre-war level. 

QUESTIONS 

What states lead in raising cattle? In raising sheep? Why? 

How are great cities supplied with fresh milk? 

What localities supply our markets with the largest number of beef catties 
With the largest number of hogs? What is the reason for this? 

For what purposes are sheep valuable? 

Why are the meat-packing establishments located where they are? Wiiai 
are the most important by-products of the packing houses? 

How is dressed meat shipped to distant cities? To foreign ports ? 



















































































































Chapter V 


COTTON 

. So far as we know, the fiber of the cotton plant was 

HISTORY 1 

first used for making clothing in India. In records 

obtained from that country, bearing the date of 1000 B. C., we 
read that the people were clothed with a fine white cloth, which 
certainly means that they had garments made from cotton. His¬ 
torians also generally believe that the ancient Egyptians cultivated 
cotton, and used the fiber in the manufacture of cloth, though no 
evidences of this industry have been found in their tombs or 
temples. Some of the early Roman writers refer to cotton as 
"tree wool,” and they undoubtedly obtained this idea from the 
cotton tree of India. Cotton was introduced into China and Japan 
at a very early date, but it was not cultivated in these countries 
for general use until about the beginning of the fourteenth century. 
When the Mohammedans took possession of Northern Africa they 
extended the cultivation of cotton to this part of the world; and 
later, when they made the conquest of Southern Europe, they 
introduced the industry into the countries of the Mediterranean. 

The cotton plant is a native of the New World. 

In America \\q ien Columbus landed on the West Indies, he 

found the plant growing there, and later the Spaniards found it in 
use in Mexico and Peru, where the natives had acquired consid¬ 
erable skill in the manufacture of cotton fabrics. 

The first attempt to raise cotton in the American colonies was 
made in Virginia in 1621, but it was more than 175 years before 
the industry became at all important. During this period its 
growth was very gradual. By 1660, cotton was raised to a very 


55 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


r>r> 


limited extent in both North and South Carolina. It was from 
these beginnings in Virginia and the Carolinas that its cultivation 
gradually spread to the other colonies whose climatic conditions 
were such as to make its culture successful. Previous to the 
Revolutionary War small quantities of cotton were raised in all the 
Southern colonies, and some was exported to England. 

England was then, as she is now, the leading country in the 
manufacture of cotton goods, and the inventions of the spinning- 
jenny and the power-loom, and the modification of the steam 
engine, so that it would furnish power for operating these machines, 
enabled England to manufacture a much larger quantity of cotton 
goods than ever before. When the American colonies had obtained 
their independence, there was a greater demand for cotton by the 
English manufacturers than the world was able to supply. This 
was not so much because a sufficient quantity of cotton could not 
be raised, as it was on account of the labor required to separate the 
fiber from the seed. 

At this time the invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney, 
an American, removed this great obstacle to the cotton industry. 
By the use of this machine, one man in a few hours could separate 
more cotton from the seed than a hundred men could in working 
by hand for the entire day. Probably no other invention has ever 
produced a more marked effect upon the industry and history of a 
country, than did the cotton-gin upon the United States. As soon 
as the raising of cotton was made profitable, large plantations 
sprang up all through the Southern States, and it was from the 
product of these plantations that the market of England was 
supplied. 


THE COTTON Thc cotton P lant belon S s to the “allow family, 

and is closely allied to the marsh mallow and the 

PLANT . . 

hollyhock. Originally it was a tropical plant, 

but its cultivation has now been extended to the fortieth parallel 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


r r* 

o i 

of latitude on each side of the equator. However, it will not 
thrive where the mean annual temperature is not over sixty degrees. 
The cotton plant grows best in a sandy loam containing large 
amounts of lime and phosphate. The soil of the Southern States 
is composed largely of disintegrated limestone that contained these 



NEGRO CABIN IN A COTTON FIELD 


substances, therefore it is especially suited to growing the plant. 
Cotton needs a rainfall of not less than forty inches, and so dis¬ 
tributed as to leave a gradually drying season in which to mature. 

There are many varieties of cotton, but those grown in the 
United States are the short staple, which is the plant having a 
short fiber, and the long staple, more generally known as the "sea 






58 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


ff 


ji 


island,” which has a long fiber. This variety was so named be¬ 
cause its cultivation was begun on the islands along the coast of 
South Carolina and Georgia, where most of the long staple is still 
produced. The fiber is about two inches in length and very fine 
and strong, making this the most valuable cotton grown. The 
short staple is by far the most extensive crop and it is this variety 
that fixes the market quotations. Because it is raised farther 
inland, it is generally known as "upland cotton.” 

The cotton plant is one of unusual beauty. The "upland 
variety attains a height of about two feet, while the "sea island 
plants are from eight to ten feet high. The leaves are dark green 
with blue veins. The plant has a showy white flower which re¬ 
sembles a single hollyhock. The fruit, in which the seed matures, 
is a round pod called the boll. When the seed is ripe the bolls burst 
and the white fiber appears. The useful part of the plant is the 
fine fiber or wool which surrounds the seed. 

What is known as the cotton belt of the United 
States includes Mississippi, Georgia, Texas, 
Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, South Carolina, 
North Carolina, and Tennessee. Cotton is also raised in Missouri, 
Virginia, Kentucky, Oklahoma, Arizona, New Mexico, and Cali¬ 
fornia. In these states the agricultural conditions are such as to 
make the cultivation of cotton successful and profitable. In most 
of them, previous to the Civil War, the cotton was grown on large 
plantations owned by slaveholders, many of whom had become very 
wealthy. The war destroyed these plantations, and most of the 
cotton is now raised on small farms, and in the Southern States 
the work is done almost entirely by the colored people. 

Cultivation The seec * * s sown the last of March or early in 

April. During the first part of their growth the 

plants must be carefully tended and kept free from weeds. The 
bolL begin to ripen about the first of September. As the bolls 


THE COTTON 
BELT 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 



burst they must be picked or the cotton is injured or wasted. Nearly 
all the work of the fields is performed by hand labor. 

Harvesting’ Several machines for picking cotton have been 

invented, but none has proved very satisfactory, 
since during the early part of the harvest the plants contain both 
the ripened and the growing bolls. As the bolls have to be picked 
as fast as they burst, the pickers are obliged to go over the field 
again and again, until the last bolls have ripened. No machine 
has yet been invented which will pick the ripened bolls and leave 


United States 


Rest of the World 


COTTOU 


the others, consequently cotton 
must be picked by hand. As 
soon as picked, the cotton is 
hauled to the gin-house where 
it is ginned, that is, separated 
from the seed. From the gin 
it goes to the press, where it is 
made into bales. Each bale is 
intended to weigh 500 pounds, 
and the average weight is 
about 480 pounds. Presses for baling cotton are very powerful, 
and in order that the bale may retain its form it is strongly hooped 
before the press is released. 

Marketing The bales are usually sent to the nearest market 

towns, where brokers buy the cotton on commission 
for the agents of the large cotton mills, or for export. That for 
export is sent to the seaports, and from September to January the 
wharves of those cities from which it is shipped are crowded with 
bales of cotton. Galveston, New Orleans, Savannah, and New 
York are the principal ports of shipment. 

Liverpool and Manchester are the greatest European cotton 
markets, and buy fully one-half the quantity exported from the 
United States. Bremen, Trieste and Genoa are also good markets. 





SHIPPING COTTON 



















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


61 


About one-third of the crop is consumed in the United States. 
The mills in which this is manufactured' are in the New England 
and some of the Southern States. 

VALUE ^ ^° Ur ^ rea ^ s ^ a P^ es — cotton, wool, flax, and silk 
— that supply man with clothing, cotton, on account 
of its cheapness and its many excellent qualities, is much more 
extensively used than any of the others. Cotton leads all farm 
crops in cheapness and ease of production, it makes scarcely any 
drain on the soil, and it is grown and harvested with the expendi¬ 
ture of less labor than most other crops. While the greatest value 
is in the fiber, the seed is a source of considerable profit. Cotton 
seed is valuable for the manufacture of oil, and after the extraction 
of the oil it makes an excellent feed for cattle and a valuable 
fertilizer as well. 



COTTON 


The United States produces about five-eighths of the world’s supply 
of cotton, but there is a great variation of the crop from year to year. 
In 1914, the crop amounted to 16,135,000 bales, in 1920, it was 12,028,- 
732 bales, which is about the average crop. Prices fluctuate with the 
demand. During the war the prices became almost prohibitive, but 
the price of raw cotton in 1921 was about one-fifth higher than in 1912. 
Cotton is now marketed through an association. 









62 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


The importance of the American cotton crop to the countries 
of Europe can scarcely be estimated. During the Civil War little 
or no cotton was exported and the operatives in the English cotton 
mills were brought to the verge of extreme poverty by being 
thrown out of work for most of the time that the war was in 
progress. In addition to the cotton consumed in the manufacture 
of textiles large quantities of short fiber known as “linters” are 
used in the manufacture of gun cotton and other explosives, and 
since 1914 the demand for this grade of cotton by the countries 
engaged in war has exceeded the supply. 

Flax and silk are not produced in the United States in suffi¬ 
cient quantity to warrant their consideration in connection with 
the other textile fibers. 

Other important crops are oats, in the produc¬ 
tion of which Iowa leads, followed by Illinois 
and Minnesota; barley, raised in largest quantities in North Dakota, 
Minnesota, California, South Dakota, and Wisconsin; hay, in which 
New York and Iowa lead; rice, found chiefly in Louisiana, Texas, 
Arkansas, California, and in smaller quantities in several other 
states. Louisiana and Texas lead in the production of sugar cane, 
and Colorado, California, Michigan, and Utah in raising sugar beets. 


OTHER CROPS 


QUESTIONS. 

From what part of the plant is the fiber of cotton obtained? The fiber 
of flax? 

Why is more cotton raised in the Southern States than in any other part 
of the world? 

What inventions have aided in the development of the cotton industry? 
Why is England the leading country in the manufacture of cotton goods? 
For what other purposes than the manufacture of cloth is cotton used? 



A FISHING PORT IN HERRING SEASON 

one of their chief articles of diet. Among civilized nations, taking and 
curing fish has, for centuries, constituted profitable employment and 

it has often been the means of adding largely to a country’s prosperity. 

63 


Chapter VI 
FISHERIES 


Fish have always constituted a valuable article 
of food. Long before man had learned to do¬ 
mesticate animals he relied upon fish as a means 
of sustenance, and savage and partially civilized peoples still make fish 


A VALUABLE 
FOOD PRODUCT 




■ :f 










64 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Fish are found in both salt and fresh water, but the salt-water 
fish far exceed in quantity and value those found in fresh water. The 
best varieties of fish are found in cold water, salt or fresh, therefore 
most of our best food fish are found in the waters of the cool temperate 
regions. 

The great fishing grounds of North America in the 
a t ater is Atlantic Ocean extend from Cape Hatteras to New¬ 
foundland, the most important being on the Grand Banks, lying east of 
Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and adjacent islands. That part of these 
banks within three miles of the shore belongs to Canada, but a much 
larger portion is situated in the high seas and is open to fishermen of 
all nations. In both quantity and value, cod are the most important 
fish taken in these waters, and it is from the Grand Banks that most of 
the codfish that supply the markets of the United States are obtained. 
Codfish are cured by salting and exposing them to the air and sun to 
dry. Shredded or boneless cod is prepared by removing the bones and 
cutting the flesh into small strips. It is placed on the market in small 
packages weighing from one to five pounds. Gloucester, Mass., is the 
most important fishing port on the Atlantic coast, and it is the center 
of the cod-fishing industry; but the inhabitants of nearly all the coast 
towns of Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts are, to some ex¬ 
tent engaged in fishing. 

Haddock, herring and mackerel are also taken in large quan¬ 
tities. The halibut is a large fish, often weighing from 100 to 300 
pounds. It is usually placed on the market without salting. Shad 
inhabit warmer waters than the cod and herring, and, at certain sea¬ 
sons of the year they are taken in large numbers at the mouths of all 
rivers as far south as the Delaware. The shad is a fish of excellent 
flavor and it is highly prized. Menhaden are not used, as food, but 
they are taken in large numbers because they are valuable for oil. 
The refuse, after the oil is extracted, is used in the manufacture of fer¬ 
tilizer. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


65 


The coast waters of the Pacific Ocean contain a number cf the 
same species of fish that are found in the Atlantic, but the cod is not 
present. The tuna, often called “the chicken of the sea” because of 
its delicate flavor, is taken and canned in large quantities off the coast 
of Southern California. The salmon fisheries are by far the most im¬ 
portant on the Pacific coast. They are located at the mouth of the 
Columbia River and Kadiak Island, Alaska, where we find the largest 
salmon fisheries in the world. The fish are caught by nets, traps and 
wheels, which throw them from the water as they crowd together in 
the rivers. The fish are dressed, packed in cans and cooked by steam. 
The cans are then sealed, labeled and packed in cases. Over 10,000,000 
cases of salmon are packed yearly in those fisheries, and the total 
value of the output exceeds $30,000,000. 


Fresh Water Fish 


The Great Lakes embrace the largest inland fish¬ 


eries in the world. Many tons of whitefish, lake 
trout and sturgeon are taken from these lakes every year. Most of 
these fish are placed on the market fresh, and by making use of the 
present means of refrigeration, they can be shipped to distant markets 
without loss or deterioration. Small lakes, rivers and creeks furnish 
catfish, trout, pickerel, bass and other excellent varieties, but not in 
sufficient quantities to make them commercially important. 

For many years fish were taken with so little 
GOVERNMENT care anc j forethought, that finally the best 

control . 

species became nearly extinct. The govern¬ 
ment now has oversight of the fisheries in all waters under its 
control, and through the United States fish commission makes 
rules prohibiting the taking of fish at certain seasons of the year, 
and also prescribing methods of fishing. The commission maintains 
fish hatcheries at various localities, where millions of fish are hatched 
every year. These, or eggs, are transported from the hatcheries in 
specially constructed cars, and placed in the waters of lakes and rivers, 


(36 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


wherever they are most needed. In addition to the United States fish 
commission, nearly every state now has its own commission and main¬ 
tains its own hatcheries. Most states have already passed stringent 
laws regarding the catching of fish. By these means, the supply of fish 
is not only maintained, but in some localities it is even on the in¬ 
crease. 


QUESTIONS 

What salt-water fish do you find in your market? Which variety is the most 
valuable? 

Where are the great salmon fisheries? How are salmon preserved for the 
market? 

Are there any valuable fishing grounds in tropical waters? If so, locate them. 


Chapter VII 


FOREST PRODUCTS 

FOREST Forests are usual] y found in regions having sandy 
REGIONS an< ^ ^ oamy s °b s > anc * an abundant rainfall. They are 
seldom found where the rainfall is less than thirty 
inches and in the United States the most dense forests occur in 
regions having over fifty inches. Mountains within these regions 
are usually forest clad to their summits, unless, as in the Rocky 
and Sierra Nevadas, the altitude extends above the tree line. 

The forest regions of the United States are located in the 
eastern and western portions of the country, and are separated by 
a vast treeless plain. The eastern region coincides with the Appa¬ 
lachian Highlands, and extends from Maine to Georgia and Alabama. 
The portion of this region south of the Ohio and Missouri extends 
westward across the Mississippi, so that the southern portion of 
Missouri, all of Arkansas, a good part of Mississippi, Louisiana, 
and Alabama are quite heavily timbered. A lighter growth also 
extends northward into Southeastern Iowa, and westward to 
include a portion of Kansas, a large portion of Oklahoma, and the 
eastern third of Texas, as far south as the thirtieth parallel. Pine, 
oak, and cypress are the prevailing trees in the southern portion 
of this region. 

The northern portion of the Appalachian region contains 
white pine, spruce, hemlock, balsam, and many varieties of hard¬ 
wood, such as maple, birch, and beech. The timber is heaviest in 
Northern Maine, Northern Vermont, and New Hampshire, and in 
the Adirondack region in New York. Passing southward the 
forest is most dense in Western Pennsylvania and along the moun- 

67 





















































































































































































































































































































































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


69 


tains through Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina and Eastern 
Kentucky and Tennessee, and extending into the northern part of 
Georgia and Alabama. An abundance of pitch pine is found in 
this locality, and furnishes the source from which most of oiu 
turpentine, resin and tar are obtained. Lighter growths on the 
eastern slope descend to the coastal plain throughout the entire 
region, and on the western slope they extend across Ohio, the 
southern half of Indiana, the entire portion of Kentucky, and the 
southern part of Illinois. 

The extensive white pine forests that formerly existed around 
the Great Lakes in the northern parts of Michigan, Wisconsin 
and Minnesota have in many places been almost entirely cut off. 
For nearly a half century this was the great lumber region of the 
country, and while the white pine is nearly exhausted, spruce, 
balsam, oak and hemlock are found in such quantities as to make 
the lumber industry important still. Trees too small for lumber 
are used in the manufacture of wood pulp, and those too small for 
wood pulp are used in making wood alcohol. 

The forest regions of the Rocky Mountain Highlands extend 
southward along two lines. The first follows the eastern range of 
the Rocky Mountains into New Mexico. In the north this region 
covers the northern portion of Idaho, the western third of Montana, 
and the northwestern portion of Wyoming. South of this point it 
is much narrower, and is quite closely confined to the mountain 
range. The timber is mostly pine. The trees are tall, straight 
and of small diameter. 

The coast division extends from the northern boundary south¬ 
ward into the northern part of California where it divides into two 
branches. The eastern, which is quite narrow, follows the Sierras 
as far as the thirty-fifth parallel, and the western follows the coast 
almost to the Golden Gate. The northern portion iucludes 
Washington, west of the Columbia River, and the western third 


70 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


USE OF 
FORESTS 


of Oregon. Here is the most dense forest in the United States. 
Here are found the Oregon pine, sugar pine and the redwood. 
The trees in this forest are much larger than those around .the 
Great Lakes and along the Appalachian Highlands, and the most 
extensive lumbering interests are now located in this portion of Wash¬ 
ington and Oregon. 

The greatest use of forests is for lumber, and some 
kinds of trees are more valuable for this purpose than 
others. These are divided into hard wood and soft 
wood. The most valuable of the soft wood trees, in their order, 
are white pine, yellow or pitch pine, spruce and hemlock, 
in the Atlantic division ; and the red cedar, or redwood, and 
Oregon pine, in the Pacific division. Of the hard woods, oak, 
hickory, maple, poplar and ash are the most extensively used. 
Soft woods are more generally used for making the frames and 
finishing interiors of buildings, while hard woods are used tor 
finishing interiors, the manufacture of furniture, the framework of 
carriages and machinery, and for many small articles in common 
use. 


White pine is the most valuable timber tree of the temperate 
regions, and was more extensively used than any other. This tree 
was formerly found in large quantities from Maine to the 
Mississippi River, and its abundance in Michigan, Wisconsin and 
Minnesota gave rise to the large lumber industry carried on in 
those states. These same states still have a thriving business in 
hard wood lumber. 

Pitch pine, or yellow pine, is found in the southern part of 
the Appalachian Highland region, and is cut quite extensively in 
North Carolina and Georgia and is known in the market as Georgia 
pine. The cypress, another soft wood tree, is also used to some 
extent in the Southern States. 

The forests of the Pacific States differ from those of the 



A GROVE OF REDWOODS, OREGON 









72 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Atlantic States by having much larger trees, and a much more dense 
growth. The abundant moisture of this region causes the redwood 
and the Oregon pine to grow to a gigantic size. Trees measuring four 
or six feet in diameter are of common occurrence in these forests, while 
the large ones often attain a diameter of sixteen feet or more, and are 
nearly four hundred feet in height. The Oregon pine or Douglas fir, 
as it is frequently called, is the tree most generally used for lumbar 
The redwood is also valuable. 

„ The uses of wood ai-e so extensive and numerous, that it 

Tjcrc 7 

would be impossible to name them all. More people live 
in houses built of wood than in those built of brick and stone. 
Wood is used as a fuel more extensively than coal. Income form 

or other it touches our daily 
life on every hand. Besides 
forming the framework and 
finishings of our dwellings and 
places of business, from it are 
made those small articles which 
are indispensable, yet so com¬ 
mon that we do not realize 
their importance until deprived 
of their use. In the form of 
wood pulp, it constitutes a 
good portion of all the paper now manufactured, and as papier- 
mache, it becomes the material from which are made tubs, pails, 
and numerous other domestic utensils. 

Lumbering ranks fourth among the great manufacturing indus¬ 
tries of the country. The yearly output of sawed lumber is valued 
at about $700,000,000, and the industry gives employment to about 
700,000 men. Lumbering centers move from one region to another 
as the timber is exhausted, and the great demand for lumber is 
rapidly depleting the forests. 


United States 


Rest of the World 


LUMBER 




COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


73 


OTHER 

PRODUCTS 


Besides wood and lumber, our forests yield us 
several other products of importance. From the 
pitch pine of the South we get tar, turpentine and 
resin. The tar is a thick, black liquid, which is obtained by 
partially distilling the pitch pine. It is used for caulking the 
seams on ships, covering roofs to make them water-tight, and in 
the manufacture of some kinds of rope. Coal tar is now exten¬ 
sively used for these purposes, so that the demand for pitch tar 
has been greatly lessened. 

Turpentine is procured by distilling the sap of the pine. It 
is used in the manufacture of varnish and in the preparation of 
paint. Resin is the residue obtained after the turpentine has been 
driven off by distillation. It is used in the manufacture of laundry 
soap, as a reducing agent in soldering, in making varnish, and for 
some other minor purposes. 

The bark of the hemlock and the oak is extensively used in 
tanning leather. 

However valuable forests may be as the source of 

VAT TTF OF 

v lumber and other products, they are of still greater 

FORESTS va i ue on account of their place in the economy of 

nature. Forests are the great conservators of moisture, and their 
influence upon the water supply of the country is much more 
extended than we often think. The ultimate sources of all impor¬ 
tant streams are in heavily timbered regions. The great areas of 
rootage and leafage formed by these forests are the principal 
agents in regulating and increasing the amount of moisture in the 


atmosphere. 

The roots of trees are constantly drawing water from the 
soil, which, after it circulates through the plant, is given off by 
the leaves in the form of vapor. At first thought it would seem 
that the amount of moisture thus given to the atmosphere would 
be extremely small, but the best authorities tell us that a medium- 



A LARGE LUMBER MILL ON THE PACIFIC COAST 
















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


75 

sized elm contains about 7,000,000 leaves which present to the air 
a surface of about five acres, and that these leaves will give off 
about seven and three-quarters tons of water in twelve hours of 
clear, dry weather. When we multiply this by hundreds and 
thousands to represent the trees in a large forest we soon discover 
that the amount of water thus discharged into the atmosphere is 
beyond our comprehension. 

The soil of the forest has been made porous by the numerous 
roots that permeate it, so that it absorbs the water from heavy 
rainfalls or melting snows, and easily retains it, allowing it to flow 
out gradually through the springs and small streams. When an 
area has been denuded of its forest trees, instead of absorbing the 
water from the heavy rainfalls, the soil allows it to run off, and we 
find that streams flowing from these regions suddenly become 
flooded and often do great damage. 

FORESTRY neatest dangers to our forests are from their 

ruthless destruction by lumber men, and from forest 
fires, which destroy thousands of acres every year. It is only 
within a few years that the Government has realized the import¬ 
ance of preserving the forests around the sources of our great 
rivers, and has taken such measures as will prevent their destruc¬ 
tion. The Department of Agriculture now has a Bureau of For¬ 
estry. The duties of this bureau are to prevent the cutting of 
timber from government lands, to prevent forest fires, and to 
instruct those, who so desire, in the care of forests and the growth 
of trees. Some of our leading colleges, also, now give courses 
in forestry, and our public schools observe Arbor Day through¬ 
out the country, the purpose being to interest the pupils in the 
planting and growth of trees. In the western half of the United 
States forest reserves have now been established around the head 
waters of the Mississippi, Missouri, Yellowstone, and some other 
important rivers. Some of these, particularly Yellowstone Park, 


76 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Tosemite, Glacier National Park, and Rocky Mountain Park, have 
been made national parks. The United States is gradually 

i 

assuming that care of her forests, which for many years has been 
exercised by the Germans over the forests of their country, and 
if this is continued there is no reason why trees should not grow 
as fast as they are used, and our forests be maintained for years 
to come. 


QUESTIONS 

How many different trees can you recognize? Name them. 

Why are forests more generally found in mountainous regions than on plains? 
\\ hat benefits do forests confer upon the country besides furnishing lumber 
and fuel? 

What measures does the Government take to protect forests? 

Where are the great lumber markets located? Why? 

W hy is white pine so extensively used for lumber? Name some of the uses 
for which hard-wood lumber is employed. 


Chapter VIII 


MINERAL INDUSTRIES 


MINING 


Buried beneath its surface, the earth contains untold treas¬ 
ures. Some, like precious stones, are valuable because they are 
rare and beautiful; others, such as gold and silver, because of 
their peculiar relation to commerce and industries; while still 
others, such as iron, copper and coal, because their general use¬ 
fulness has given them important economic relations. These 
common minerals are so closely associated with all lines of industry 
that they have become indispensable. 

Mining is the occupation of extracting minerals from 
the earth, and sometimes the process of separating 
metals from their ores is so closely associated with it, that both 
operations are considered together. This is particularly true of 
those mines having smelting works near at hand, and whose ores 
contain a number of metals, such as gold, silver and copper. 

Minerals are most abundant in the moun- 
Location of Mines tainous regions, and, as already noted, 

we find the important mining states to be those of the Appalachian 
and Rocky Mountain Highland regions. To this we must make 
one noted exception. The great coal-producing states of Ohio, 
Indiana and Illinois are located in the prairie region, and their 
coal measures seem to lie as they were first formed, without 
having undergone any change of position by such movements of 
the earth’s crust as formed the great mountain ranges. 

All mining is prosecuted in very much the same way. 
Methods \yj ien the material to be obtained is deep in the 
ground, shafts are sunk, and, from the foot of these, galleries are 

77 


78 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


excavated. The galleries follow the vein of mineral and are often 
very irregular and winding. The surrounding rock is kept from 
caving in by timbers which are put in place as the excavation 
proceeds. The ore is hoisted to the surface by elevators, operated 
by hoisting engines, or it is taken out by tram cars. Every mine 
is provided with ventilating shafts and with pumps for carrying off 
the water that is constantly running down. 

In many mines among the Rocky Mountains and in the coal 
regions of Pennsylvania shafts are sunk to a great depth, and 
several galleries, called levels, are excavated, one above the other, 
the ore from all being brought to the surface from the same shaft. 
The aim, in all cases, is to secure the mineral with the least 
possible expense consistent with safety to the miners. 

When the ore, or metal, occurs on the surface, as in case of 
gold in the sand and gravel on the beach or along the bed of a 
stream, mining is a very simple process. The gravel is shovelled 
into a pan, or sluice, and washed. The gold is heavier than the 
pebbles and sinks to the bottom more quickly. When the wash¬ 
ing is in a sluiceway, slats are nailed across the bottom of the 
sluice every few feet. The water is turned on and the gravel 
shovelled in at the upper end. As the gold sinks, the slats keep 
it from running down the sluice, and, when the water is shut off, 
it is picked out. The great iron mines around the upper end of 
Lake Superior are also surface mines. But these are described on 
page 123. 

Towns usually spring up around the mines. 

Mining Towns r phey comprise the dwellings of the miners and 

officers, a few stores, possibly one or two banks and hotels, 
and one or more places of amusement, with other public buildings. 
Most of these towns are of a temporary nature, and disappear 
when the mine becomes exhausted, and the miners remove to 
another locality. For this reason the buildings are usually plain 



THE DOUBLE HOIST AT THE BUTTE MUSES, MONTANA 















80 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


board structures of the simplest sort. They may be comfortable 
and reasonably convenient, but they are not ornamental. 

The mining industry is closely related to trans¬ 
importance portation and manufactures. The carrying of ore, 
coal and stone constitutes the larger part of the business of those 
lines of railway which traverse the mining regions, and the prod¬ 
uct of the mines constitutes the fuel and raw material necessary to 
a number of lines of manufacture. In addition to this, the prod¬ 
ucts of the mills that w r ork up this raw material are necessary 
to other factories engaged in the production of entirely dif¬ 
ferent lines of goods. The lumber of the sawmills enters into 
the manufacture of furniture, the construction of houses, and the 
making of many domestic utensils. Iron enters into the construc¬ 
tion of all machinery, and without machinery many of the products 
of the present day would be impossible. 

The mountainous regions, though rugged and barren on the 
surface, are valuable, for without the minerals which they contain, 
much of the business of the world, as now carried on, would be 
wholly impossible. 

All minerals can be divided into two great classes — metals 


and non-metals. Gold, silver, iron, copper and lead arc examples 
of our most common metals. Coal, marble, granite, sand and 
salt are examples of non-metals. This class is much larger than 
the metals, and many substances found in it differ widely from 
each other in appearance and properties. 


QUESTIONS. 

Are any important minerals found in your locality? If so, for what 
are they used? 

What is an ore? What ores can you tell by their appearance? 

Why are mining towns usually so poorly built? 

How many metals can you recognize? Name them. 

How many different kinds of rock can you recognize ? What is the 
difference between a rock and a metal ? 


Chapter IX 
METALS 


CHARACTERISTICS 


ORES 


In general, metals have a bright lustre, are 
hard, and are good conductors of heat; that 
is, they heat and cool quickly. They are also good conductors 
of electricity, and, with the exception of mercury, are solid at 
ordinary temperatures, but melt when heated to a high temperature. 
Many metals in their pure state are mere curiosities and only a few 
of the entire series enter extensively into the world's industries 
and commerce. The most important of these are gold, silver, 
copper, zinc, lead, tin, mercury, aluminum, and iron. 

Metals are found in a pure state scattered through veins 
of rocks, or combined with some substance in the form 
of rock. Gold and copper are good examples of metals occurring 
in the pure state in veins. Gold is usually found imbedded in 
veins of quartz, and copper may be in quartz or other rock. The 
veins fill crevices in the surrounding rock, which is of an entirely 
different sort. The veins are very irregular, may be from a few 
inches to several hundred feet in width, and frequently send off 
branches in various directions. The rock in the vein and sur¬ 
rounding the metal is usually known as gangue. Ore in the form 
of rock is more liable to occur in masses. Then the rock is 
quarried and treated to the process necessary for extracting the 
metal. 


Gold has been one of the longest known of the metals. 
GOLD jj. - g w j^ e ]y distributed over the earth, and occurs free, 
that is, in a pure state. Wherever it occurs it is readily recog¬ 
nized by its color, and with few exceptions is easily obtained. The 


81 


82 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


ancients used gold for the purpose of ornaments, jewels, and utensils 
in their sacred temples. Then, as now, a high value was placed 
upon it. 

Production ^he States, South Africa, and Australia 

are the leading gold-producing countries of the 
world. The gold regions of the United States are confined to the 
Rocky Mountain Highlands, the Pacific Slope, and Alaska, where 
extensive placer, or surface, mines have been developed in Seward 
Peninsula and along the Yukon River. The aggregate production 
of gold in the world is some over $365,000,000 a year. Of this amount 
the United States, including Alaska, produces about $50,000,000, or 
more than one-seventh. 

Gold is of great importance in commerce and in the arts. 

It will not tarnish and cannot be corroded by any sub¬ 
stance but a mixture of muriatic and nitric acids, and is the only 
metal that can be used for some forms of gilding, and in the manu¬ 
facture of the finest quality of jewelry and ornamental ware. On 
account of its steady value, it has become the standard for money 
in nearly all civilized nations. In the United States 25.8 grains 
of gold make a dollar, which gives the metal a value of $20,639 a troy 
ounce. In practice, a small quantity of copper and silver are 
mixed with the gold to harden it, so as to prevent loss by the wearing 
away of the coin. 

SILVER Silver haS probably been known as long as gold. It 
is as widely distributed through the earth, and is even 

more abundant. Unlike gold, however, it is not found in a free 
state, but occurs combined with one or more substances in the 
form of ore. Most of the ore is a dark colored rock, in which we 
find the silver frequently combined with lead and copper, and it is 
from the reduction of ores of this sort that a large part of the 
silver produced in the United States is obtained. The processes 
are very complex, and consist in crushing the ore, washing it, 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


83 


treating it with chemicals and smelting. Our annual production 
is about 73,000,000 ounces. The other leading silver-producing 
countries are Mexico, Canada, and Australasia. 

Silver is used to some extent in coinage, but largely in the 
manufacture of silverware and plate. Several of its compounds 
are also employed in photography. Gold and silver are considered 



CONCENTRATORS IN A GOLD MILL 


Concentrators are tables having a vibratory motion, and when in use water is cons autly running 
over them, They are used with ore containing gold or silver. The ore is crushed very fine, then the 
worthless parts are separated by running the crushed ore over the concentrator The parts containing 
the metal are heavier thin the others and settle whiie the running water washes the rock away. 


as the commercial metals, for the values of all commodities are 
measured by them, and for centuries they have constituted the 

medium of exchange for the world. 

Copper is one of the most useful metals in the arts, 
COPPER an( ^ | ike go j d and s p ver> was known to the ancients, 

who used some of its ores in the manufacture of bronze. It was 










84 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


with tools of bronze that the Egyptians cut and fashioned the 
stones for their temples and monuments, and the possession of 
large mines of copper made them the leading commercial nation of 
their time. While copper is found in all parts of the world, it 
occurs in large quantities only in a few localities. The copper 
regions of the United States are along the south shore of Lake 
Superior, in and around Butte and Helena, Montana, in several localities 
in Arizona and in Alaska. 

The mines in the Lake Superior regions are on the small penin¬ 
sula known as Keweenaw Point, and are among the most interesting 
mines in the world. The copper in this region occurs as free metal, 
and is found in veins in rock. It is obtained by crushing the rock, 
then separating the metal by washing. These mines have been 
worked continuously since 1847, and some of them now extend 
over a mile below the surface and are the deepest in the world. 
The ore in the Montana and Arizona districts is in the form of a 
sulphide, from which the copper is obtained by roasting and then 
smelting. 

Arizona and Montana are the leading states in the production 
of copper. The Montana ore is a dark slate-colored rock bearing 
no resemblance to copper. The ore is crushed to a fineness of 
powder, then washed in water flowing over vibrating tables, which 
separates the worthless portions from those containing the copper. 
The particles containing the metal are heavier than the others 
and settle, while the lighter and worthless portions are carried 
away by the water. The crushed ore is then roasted in large fur¬ 
naces where it is brought to a red heat. This drives off the sulphur 
in the form of gas, and the roasted ore when smelted yields the 
copper. The gas driven off in roasting the ore destroys vegetation 
and scarcely a green thing can be seen in and about Butte or Ana¬ 
conda, where the furnaces are located. The Arizona mines have 
not yet been fully developed, but they rank first in the United 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


85 


States, in the order of production, the Lake Superior mines being 
third, and Alaska fourth. 

The United States as a whole produces about one-half of the 
world’s supply of copper, and the mines in the three regions named 
yield over two-thirds of this quantity. The exports of copper have 
increased rapidly since 1914, owing to the extraordinary demand 
for it by England, France, and Russia for the manufacture of 
munitions. 

Copper is combined with zinc in the manufacture of brass, and 
with zinc and other metals for the making of various kinds of 
bronze. It is also used in sheets for making boilers, covering 
roofs, and sheathing the hulls of ships, 'but by far the most 
extensive use is in the manufacture of copper wire which is 
largely employed in the construction and operation of electrical 
machinery. 

Zinc occurs in ore commonly known as blende. The 
most valuable mines are located in the vicinity of Joplin, 
Missouri, and Platteville, Wisconsin. Other mines of some import¬ 
ance are found in Illinois, Indiana, and New Jersey. The amount 
of zinc produced in the country is not large, but in considering our 
mineral industries, this metal deserves a notice on account of its 
relation to other metals with which it is combined in so many ways 
as to make it an important article of commerce. 

Lead is found more generally in the Rocky Mountain 
region and in the northwestern part of Illinois, where it 
occurs in a compound of lead and sulphur. As already stated, 
much of the lead ore, especially that in the Rocky Mountain region, 
is combined with silver and copper, so that on reduction the ore 
often yields the three metals. The most extensive uses of lead 
are for making lead pipe, and in the manufacture of a compound 
known as white lead, which forms the basis of our most valuable 
paints. 


ZINC 


LEAD 


86 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


MERCURY 


ALUMINUM 


About five-sevenths of the mercury produced 
in the United States comes from California. Mer¬ 
cury is about thirteen and a half times heavier than water and at 
ordinary temperatures is a liquid. These peculiarities make it 
valuable in the manufacture of thermometers and barometers. It 
readily dissolves gold, with which it forms an amalgam, and for this 
reason it is extensively employed in obtaining gold from ores in which 
the gold occurs in small quantities. It is also used in the manufac¬ 
ture of paint known as vermilion, and for silvering mirrors. 

Aluminum is found in all clay compounds, and 
exists in abundance, but as yet we have not been 
able to extract it from but a few of its ores. The richest of these 
is the mineral known as bauxite, from which the aluminum is 
obtained by a powerful electric current. It is only since the con¬ 
struction of the large dynamos at Niagara, that the production 
of aluminum for commercial purposes has been possible, and nearly 
all the supply for the world is produced by the Pittsburgh Reduc¬ 
tion Company, which operates plants at Niagara Falls and Pitts¬ 
burgh in the United States, and in England. 

Aluminum is the most recent metal to come into general use. 
It is now employed in the construction of household utensils; it 
is taking the place of copper for wire in connection with electric 
machinery, and is used in place of stone in printing lithographs. 


IRON AND STEEL. 

IRON ^ r ° n * S mos t useful and important of all the metals. 

It is distinctly the metal of civilization, and its extensive 
use characterizes the present as the Iron Age. On account of the 
difficulty in extracting iron from its ores, it was not known or 
used for several centuries after gold, silver, and copper were 
common. The Romans acquired the art of smelting the ore, and 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


87 


used iron at first for coins, then for tools and weapons. Other 
nations followed the example of the Romans and improved upon 
their methods, and each century has seen the use of iron widely 
extended. 


Iron Ore ^ ron * s se ^ om ^ oun< ^ ^ ree nature, but is extracted 
from its ore, which occurs in the form of rock, and is 
very generally distributed over the earth. Its occurrence in com¬ 
mercial quantities in or near those localities where fuel is abundant 

is one of the principal factors in a 
nation’s prosperity. Sometimes 


United States 


Rest of the World 


IRON AND STEEL 


water percolating through rock 
containing iron dissolves a por¬ 
tion of the metal, and brings it 
to the surface, where it is occa¬ 
sionally deposited in bogs and 
marshes. These deposits look 
like large lumps of rusty iron, 
and are known as bog ore. It 

was from this ore that iron was first made in the United States. 

The important iron regions of the United States 
occur in the Appalachian Highlands, in the 
Rocky Mountain Highlands, along the shores of Lake Superioi, 
and in the Ozark Mountains, in Missouri. Of these, the Rocky 
Mountain deposits and those in the Ozark Mountains have not yet 
been developed. The iron industry began in those portions of the 
country that were first settled, consequently the mines in the 
Appalachian Highlands have been worked for a long period, and 
in the northern portion of this region, among the Adiiondack 


Iron Regions 


Mountains, some have become nearly exhausted. 

The most prolific sources of iron at the present time are in 
the Lake Superior region where large deposits of red hematite 
are found in the Mesaba Range in Minnesota and the Gogebic 




88 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Range in Michigan, just south of the lake. In both these 
regions the ore occurs in the form of decomposed rock or gravel, 
and is in such a state that it can be loaded on to the cars by 
the use of steam shovels. One of these shovels will scoop up 
several tons of ore at a time, and it requires but a few minutes 
to load the car. This ore is loaded on cars specially constructed 
for the purpose. These cars are then run upon elevated tracks 
at the ore docks, where they are unloaded by dumping the 
ore into chutes. These chutes are of sufficient height to allow 
the ore to slide from them into the holds of the ships, which 
transport it to the iron manufacturing centers on Lakes Erie and 
Michigan. So perfect is the arrangement of all these appliances 
that a large ship can be loaded with ore in from one to three 
hours, and smaller ships in less than an hour. The ore is so 
easily mined, and water transportation is so cheap, that the ore 
from this region is often delivered at Cleveland, Ohio, or Erie, 
Pennsylvania, at an expense not exceeding 85 cents per ton. 

The great iron mills are located where the ore and 
Iron Mills f ue i re q U j re( j to smelt it can be the most cheaply 

brought together. These localities are in Western Pennsylvania, 
Southeastern Ohio, around the southern end of Lake Michigan, 
and near Birmingham, Alabama; consequently we find Cleveland, 
Ohio, Erie and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Chicago, Illinois, Gary, 
Indiana, Birmingham and Bessemer, Alabama, to be our most impor¬ 
tant cities in the production of iron and steel. 

Since it requires about two and one-third tons of coal to smelt 
a ton of ore, it is much cheaper to transport the ore into the 
locality where the fuel is obtained, and, in addition to this, the 
boats which take the ore from the Lake Superior region to the 
ports on the lower lakes can return laden with coal, so that with 
the transportation of both commodities the traffic for these lines of 
steamers is very profitable. Moreover, this method of transporta- 



ORE DOCK, SHOWING THE METHOD OF LOADING VESSELS 








































90 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


tion enables the people of the West and the Northwest to obtain their 
coal at a much lower rate than they could if it were transported all 
the way from the mines by rail. Much of the coal used in Minnesota, 
Wisconsin and Michigan, is brought by boats to some lake port, and 
from there shipped to its destination. 

.. Iron is used in three forms; cast iron, wrought iron and 
steel. When the melted iron comes from the furnace, it 
is either run into steel molds or into channels in sand; in either case, 
it is cast into bars known as pig-iron. This is the crudest form of cast 
iron and is used directly in making articles, such as stoves, and some 
ordinary utensils where great strength is not required. These articles 
are cast by simply re-melting the iron and pouring it into the molds. 


When pig iron is melted in a furnace in which it can be stirred 
or puddled, the quality of the iron is greatly improved. It loses 
its brittleness and can be rolled out into bars, or sheets, without 
difficulty, and can be bent without breaking. This product is called 
wrought iron, and is used in the manufacture of rods and many articles 
where toughness and strength are required, though the present method 
in the manufacture of steel has somewhat restricted its use, but it is 
still extensively employed in the manufacture of wire, the uses of which 
are constantly increasing. 


STEEL 


Steel is a form of iron which contains a certain amount 


of carbon. This increases the hardness of the metal 
and also its strength. Steel is made by three methods. The old method 
is to pack bars of wrought iron in iron boxes with charcoal and keep 
them at a red heat for several days. This method is still used in the 
manufacture of steel of a very fine quality. 


For many purposes for which steel is 
Bessemer Steel used, it is now manufactured by what is 

known as the Bessemer process, which takes its name from Sir 
Henry Bessemer, its discoverer. Cast iron contains too much 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


91 


carbon, and wrought iron does not contain enough. By the old 
method of making steel the carbon was burned into the wrought 
iron. By the Bessemer process it is burned out of the cast iron. 



PER CENT PRODUCTION OF IRON ORE, BT STATES 

The Bessemer process of making steel was one of the most 
valuable discoveries of the nineteenth century. By this process 
the cost of manufacture was so reduced that steel became avail¬ 
able for many purposes for which its expense had hitherto rendered 
it impracticable. The modern railway, with its ponderous locomo¬ 
tives and steel freight and passenger cars, became practicable. The 
employment of steel in shipbuilding made possible the great ocean 
liners now used in both freight and passenger traffic, and its use for 
frames of buildings led to the modern city skyscraper, often ex¬ 
tending upward for twenty or more stories. 

But, notwithstanding the position held by Bessemer steel for the 






92 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


PRODUCTION 


first quarter of a century after its discovery, it has been replaced for 
many purposes by what is known as open-hearth steel, so called 
because it is made by removing the impurities from molten iron 
by spreading it on the bottom or hearth of a furnace and exposing 
it to a flame of intense heat. 

The United States is the leading nation in the 
world in the production of iron and steel. She 
is followed by Great Britain, which, in turn, is followed by Germany. 
The iron industry is one of the most important in the country. 
While a large amount of the product is used at home, a great quan¬ 
tity of it is also exported to the countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
These exports are not in the form of iron and steel as they come 
from the smelting furnace, but in manufactured products such as 
bridges, rails, and machinery. Minnesota and Michigan lead in the 


production of iron ore, while Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois, 
in the order named, lead in the production of manufactured iron and 
steel. 


QUESTIONS 

What is a vein of ore? Did you ever see a rock with veins in it? How can 
you tell them? 

What is placer mining? By what other methods is gold mined? 

Which is the more useful metal, gold or iron? What reasons can you give 
for your opinion? 

What makes copper so valuable? What metal has been the most recently 
introduced into the arts? 

Where are the great iron and steel mills of the country located? What are 
the reasons for their location? 

W hat is steel? In what respects is it superior to iron? 

Name some of the uses for which iron is employed. 

What has made the United States the leading nation in the production of 
iron and steel? 


Chapter X 


NON-METALLIC MINERALS 


COAL 


Formation 


A number of minerals are valuable on account of their use as 
fuel. The most important of these found in the United States are 
coal, petroleum and natural gas. 

Coal is found in seams, or veins, buried in the earth. It 
is widely distributed, and is found in many countries of 
the north temperate zone and in some portions of the north frigid 
zone, particularly Alaska. South of the Equator it is known to 
exist in Australia and South Africa. 

In the lowlands, in cool, temperate climates, we 
frequently find swamps in which, for many years, 
mosses, several varieties of ferns, rushes and reeds have been 
growing. From year to year, these partially decay at the bottom 
and the new growth of the succeeding seasons springs from the 
bed formed by their decaying vegetation. From two to four feet 
below the surface a formation is found that closely resembles the 
vegetable mold of soils. When dried, this forms excellent fuel, 
and is known as peat. Were peat subjected to great pressure and 
heat, under such conditions that the air could not reach it, it would 
be changed to coal. 

Coal has been formed from the vegetation of the past ages by 
processes similar to those described in the formation of peat. 
This vegetation grew many centuries before any animal life existed 
upon the earth, and was much more luxuriant than vegetation that 
we find at the present day, even in tropical regions. The 
evidences found in coal mines tend to prove that, in the period in 
which these plants thrived, ferns and club-mosses grew to the size * 


93 














































































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


95 


of trees, and that these forms were interspersed with several 
species of large trees entirely different from anything that now 
exists upon the earth. These luxuriant growths of vegetation 
were, by movement of the earth’s crust, sunk beneath the sea and 
covered with mud, which in time became hardened into rock. 
The heat produced by the pressure and movement of the rocks in 
the course of ages changed this vegetation into coal. The plants 
were so completely excluded from the air, and were subjected to 
such great pressure, that the coal is harder and much more perfect 
than charcoal, which we obtain by burning wood, or other sub¬ 
stances, in closed vessels. 

Some time after the first growth of vegetation, the land again 
rose above the surface of the sea, and another growth appeared, 
which, in its turn, was also buried and changed to coal. In some 
localities this process was repeated a number of times, each repeti¬ 
tion being marked by a vein of coal. Consequently, we find the 
veins separated from each other by layers of rock varying in thick¬ 
ness from a few inches to hundreds of feet. As a general thing 
the coal in the lowest veins is the hardest and of the best quality, 
but in the mountainous regions of Pennsylvania, and some other 
portions of the world, the veins have been tilted so that they are 
now found in an oblique position, and it is not always the lowest 
vein that is the oldest. In the more level regions of Ohio, 
Indiana and Illinois, the veins are found in much the same posi¬ 
tion as they were when formed, and extend in a horizontal 
direction. 

Some of the veins are only a few inches thick, while others 
attain a thickness of from ten to twelve feet. If a vein is less 
than three feet thick, it can not be profitably worked on account 
of the expense of excavating the amount of rock necessary to secure 
the coal. There are a number of varieties of coal, indicated by 
their composition and degrees of hardness. Those of the latest 


96 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


formation are the softest and least valuable. The varieties gener¬ 
ally known are lignite, bituminous, cannel and anthracite. 

Lignite is a variety of soft coal that is less valuable 
Lignite th an those that follow. In formation it is between 
peat and soft coal; it still retains the reddish hue, like peat, and 
crumbles readily. Lignite is found in a number of states west 
of the Mississippi, and is mined to some extent in Colorado, 
the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Oklahoma. Since these 
states are located a long distance from the bituminous coal 
fields, lignite constitutes a valuable and convenient source of 
fuel. It has never been used in engines, or for manufacturing 
purposes on a large scale, but it is successful as a heating 
fuel. Lignite mines have not yet been developed to any 
extent, but as the demand for fuel in states west of the Missis¬ 
sippi increases, these mines will grow in importance and lignite 
will supply most of the local needs for domestic and other 
heating purposes. 

Bituminous coal is much softer than anthracite, 
and contains more oil and vegetable matter than 
carbon. When broken, the best quality leaves a glossy or jet-like 
surface. It burns with a bright flame and dense, black smoke, 
and gives oft* an intense heat. Bituminous coal is much more 
generally distributed than anthracite. In the United States it 
is found in Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Southern 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Missouri. It also constitutes a 
great part of the coal mined in England and on the continent of 
Europe. This is the coal generally used in making coke, for 
smelting iron and for other manufacturing purposes. 

Cannel coal is a variety of bituminous which occurs 
Cannel on jy - m sma p q Uan tities. It is sometimes used for 
making ornaments, because, when polished, it very closely 
resembles jet. It is also highly prized for burning in open grates, 



o o 


o q 


W °« Ph 






























































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


97 


as it burns with a bright flame and with little smoke. When a 
piece is ignited at the end, it continues to burn like a candle until 
entirely consumed—a peculiarity from which this variety of coal 
takes its name. Cannel coal has passed through the bituminous 
stage and is nearly as hard as anthracite. 

Anthracite is the hardest and the most valuable 
Anthracite coa ] f oun d ? either in America or England. Nature 

has made it by causing soft coal to be subjected to such heat and 
pressure that most of the oils and gases have been driven oft’, leav¬ 
ing the almost pure carbon. It has a black, glossy appearance, 
and burns with but little flame but with intense heat. On account 
of its hardness and its appearance it is often known as hard coal, 
and sometimes as stone coal. The largest mines of anthracite now 
worked are found in the eastern portion of Pennsylvania; small 
quantities are obtained in Nova Scotia and England. 

The layers of rock in which coal is found are 
Coal Measures j^ nown as coa i measures. The important coal 

measures in the United States are found in Pennsylvania, West 
Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Alaska. There 
are also measures of lignite, or soft coal, found in nearly all of 
the states west of the Mississippi, in small patches or large areas. 
Taken together, these coal measures have an area exceeding four 
times that of the state of New York, and a depth which has not yet 
been ascertained, as the veins near the surface will, with but few 
exceptions, be the only ones worked for years to come. This 
shows us that our country has a sufficient supply ol coal to last its 
people for many generations and for all purposes. This is one of 
the greatest sources of our prosperity, for without coal it would be 
impossible to supply fuel to many portions of the country, and 
without fuel these regions could not be inhabited. Also, as 
already noted in the chapter on iron, coal is necessary for most 
manufacturing purposes, and were it not for the extensive supply 


98 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


of this commodity many of the manufacturing industries would be 
impracticable, if not entirely impossible. 

Mining Coal ^ m ^ nec ^ by sinking a shaft into the earth until it 
cuts the vein. This shaft is a rectangular excavation, 
usually about thirty feet long and twelve or fourteen feet wide. 
It is divided into four compartments by vertical partitions. In 
two of these the hoisting cages, which are nothing more than freight 
elevators, operate; another is used for ventilating the mine; and 
the fourth for pipes used in pumping out water, for electric 

wires and other appliances that 
may be needed to make connec¬ 
tion between the mine and the 
works above. 

From the foot of the shaft, 
galleries are excavated in all di¬ 
rections. These galleries are in¬ 
tersected at frequent intervals 
by cross galleries, so that in a 
mine which has been worked to 
any extent, they resemble quite 
closely, in their arrangement, the streets of a city. Tramways 
are laid in the main galleries, and upon these cars are run, either 
hauled by mules or electric locomotives. As the coal is broken 
from the veins, it is loaded upon the cars, which are hauled to the 
foot of the shaft and run upon the hoisting cages. As the cars 
reach the surface, they are run from the hoisting cages to a platform, 
where they are unloaded by being dumped into a chute, where 
the coal is separated into various sizes. Each size is loaded 
separately, either upon the car or into the boat, as the location of 
the mines requires, and sold as nut, egg, etc., according to its size. 

Transportation Whenever possible, coal is transported from 

the mines by boat, but in all other cases by 


United States 


Rest of (he World 


COAL 




COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


99 


railway, and is taken to all cities and towns in the country. Very 
much of the local expense of this fuel comes from the freight, and 
localities far from the coal mines pay much higher prices than 
those near by. We have already seen, in our description of iron, 
that the transportation of coal from the lower to the upper lakes 
constitutes an important factor in the traffic of the ore boats. 
Besides these lines of steamers, there are numerous others that are 


engaged in carrying coal from Cleveland, Erie, and other large 
cities, to the Great Lake ports. Most of this coal has to be hauled 
to the wharf by train, where it is loaded upon the boat, from which 



C 


it is again transferred to 
the docks, to be taken by 
train to its final destina¬ 
tion. Yet, notwithstand¬ 
ing all of this handling, 
the freight by water is 
much cheaper than it 
would be were the coal 
hauled to the Northwest 
by railway. 


r A great deal of coal in West Virginia, Western Pennsyl- 
yania and Ohio is manufactured into coke. This is done 
by burning the coal in kilns, called ovens. The air is partially 
excluded so that only the gaseous matter is burned, leaving a kind 
of charcoal, which constitutes the coke. Coke is used in smelting 
iron ore, and for some other manufacturing purposes, and to some 
extent for heating. The coal cannot be used in smelting iron 
because it contains sulphur, which is injurious to the metal. 

The uses of coal are so numerous that it would be difficult 
Uses to enumerate them all. It is the source of all our steam 
power; we depend upon it for nearly all transportation, both by 
land and water, in the manufacture of iron and steel, and of other 












100 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


metals; for warming our houses and places of business, and for 
the manufacture of illuminating gas. The use of coal is so thor¬ 
oughly identified with our life and industries that, were its supply 
to cease, the business of the country would be demoralized. No 
more impressive lesson of the relation of this mineral to our indus¬ 
trial life could well be given than that resulting from the shortage 
of coal in the winter of 1902-03, caused by the great coal strike in 
the anthracite mines in Pennsylvania. New York, Boston, and 
many other large cities in the Eastern states, which depended 
almost entirely on this source of supply for their coal, were obliged 
to close manufactories, to reduce the number of trains upon their 
railways, and in many other ways change the ordinary run of 
business, while many people were deprived of their usual supply 
of fuel for domestic purposes. 

The annual output of coal in the United States is about 
531,000,000 tons of 2000 pounds. Eighty-nine million tons of this 
are anthracite and the balance bituminous. The United States 
produces the largest amount of coal of any country in the world. 
It is closely followed by the United Kingdom, which, until within 
a few years, was the leading producer. Germany produces about 
150,000,000 tons, and other countries only small quantities. These 
countries are also the three greatest manufacturing countries. 

Next to coal, petroleum is our most important 
PETROLEUM . , , , T . . , , . . . 

mineral tuel. It is found in reservoirs m the 

earth, and is obtained by boring wells. The name, which means 
rock oil, was given it because the oil was obtained by boring into 
soft layers of rock, which are saturated with oil. The regions in which 

it is found are known as the oil fields. In the United States these are 
located in western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, the southern part of 
Ohio, portions of Indiana, the southwestern part of Illinois, in Colorado, 
southern California, Texas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The most impor¬ 
tant foreign fields are around the Caspian Sea and in the Island of Java, 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


101 


USES ^ ie USCS mos ^ ^ ie P^roleum products are very familiar. 

The growth of the automobile industry has created such a de¬ 
mand for gasoline that the refineries can scarcely fill their orders, and 
since 1910 the price of gasoline has rapidly advanced. Benzine and 
naphtha are used for dissolving gums in the manufacture of varnish, 
in mixing paints and for laboratory purposes. The invention of a 
mantle for kerosene lamps, similar to that used on gas jets, has greatly 



OIL WELL AND STORAGE TANKS 


increased the illuminating power of kerosene; nevertheless, electricity 
and acetylene gas have almost entirely displaced this illuminant, ex¬ 
cept in rural districts. 

Crude petroleum is used as a fuel in localities where coal and 
wood do not occur. For this reason the discovery of oil in Cali¬ 
fornia and Texas has been of great advantage to the people of those 













102 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


regions. The oil from these fields is extensively used, not only for heat¬ 
ing and cooking purposes, but also as a fuel in locomotives and for driv¬ 
ing stationary engines. This use of petroleum has greatly facilitated 
transportation on several lines of railway in Arizona, New Mexico, and 
southern California. It is also a desirable fuel for steamships, on some 
of which it is replacing coal. 

_ . The growth of the oil industry has led to 

ransportation man y new developments in the methods of 

transportation. At first it was carried from the wells in barrels, 
which were hauled on wagons to the nearest railway station or re¬ 
finery, but the poor roads made this method almost impracticable. 
Whenever possible, the oil was loaded onto boats, some of which 
had tanks constructed for the purpose, while others received the oil 
in barrels. These were floated down the rivers to the point of des¬ 
tination or .of trans-shipment, but the railway soon became the 
most important factor in the transportation. At first the barrels 
were loaded on the cars, but in a short time tank cars, constructed 
especially for the purpose, came into use. These cars are now 
familiar in all parts of the country. The tanks resemble a huge 
steam boiler with a dome, and have a capacity of several hundred 
barrels. Oil receiving stations are now established in every large 
town. These stations contain large steel tanks into which the oil 
is unloaded from the cars, and from which it is distributed to mer¬ 
chants in tank wagons. From the merchants it reaches the 
consumer. 

But in the large oil centers, pipe lines have since taken the place 
of cars. These lines are laid similar to gas or water pipe systems. 
Small pipes run from each well to large mains which finally unite into 
one large line that leads from the oil field to the refinery. The 
pipes are made of steel and are of great strength. By their use, oil 
can be conveyed hundreds of miles without handling. Pipe lines 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


103 


extend from the oil fields in Pennsylvania to Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, 
Cleveland, Baltimore and New York City. Another long line is one 
reaching from Kokomo, Indiana, to Chicago. Pumping stations are 
established at frequent intervals, by the use of which the oil is forced 
along on its journey. 

The world’s output of petroleum amounts to about 515,000,000 
barrels a year, and in 1920, the output of the United States was 443,- 
402,000 barrels. Russia, which formerly occupied the second place as 
a producer, was exceeded by Mexico. Important oil fields have re¬ 
cently been opened in the Dutch East Indies, in Colombia, South 
America and in Canada, north of Great Slave Lake. The United 
States exceeds all other countries in the manufacture of petroleum 
products. 


Natural Gas 


Natural gas is an important mineral fuel. It is 


usually found in the same localities as petroleum. 
For a number of years it was extensively used in Southern Ohio, west¬ 
ern Pennsylvania, and central Indiana, where it was employed in the 
manufacture of glass and in smelting iron and steel, but the supply 
in those regions is nearly exhausted. Other regions have been dis¬ 
covered and natural gas is now plentiful in Kansas, Oklahoma and 
a few other states. The supply in 1920 for the United States amounted 
to $159,650,000. 


QUESTIONS 


Examine a piece of charcoal. How does it differ in structure and hardness 
from anthracite? From bituminous coal? 

From what region is the coal used in your locality obtained? 

Why is coal more expensive in Minnesota than in Illinois? 

Where are the great coal docks of the United States located? Give the 
reason for their location. 

What products are obtained from petroleum? Which of these is the most 
valuable? 

What is meant by “refining” petroleum? Where are the great refineries 
located? 

How can you account for the rapid growth of the petroleum industry? 



MARBLE QUARRY, RUTLAND, VT 










\ 


Chapter XI 

ROCK AND SOIL PRODUCTS 


Building stone includes marble, limestone, granite and 
slate. Limestone is one of our most common rocks. It 


BUILDING 

STONE . , , , 

is hard and strong and it withstands the action of the 

weather. It is, therefore, extensively used for foundations of buildings, 
the abutments and piers for bridges and for the walls of large structures 
where a fine finish is not required. Some varieties are extensively 
used in the manufacture of quick lime; others are used in making ce¬ 
ment. 


Marble is crystallized limestone which was changed and 
Marble purified by heat after the rock was formed. It is found 
in large quantities in Vermont, Georgia, Colorado, Tennessee and 
Alaska. There are many varieties, and marble is found in almost all 
colors, from jet black to pure white. Marble is used for finishing inte¬ 
riors, for statuary and for the walls of public buildings where a fine 
finish is required, but it does not withstand weathering as well as most 
other building stones. 

Marble of the finest quality is found in Italy, but the quarries are 
worked by hand labor and the output, compared with that of the 
United States, is small. 

Granite is the hardest and strongest of all the building 

r & ° 
urdnue stones. It varies in color from nearly white to a very dark 

gray, which is almost a black. Some of the best granite has a reddish 
color. This rock occurs in many places, but is extensively worked in the 
New England states and Minnesota. It takes a high polish, and with¬ 
stands the action of the weather better than marble. For this reason it 
is now quite extensively used for headstones and statuary that is to be 
placed in public parks. Granite is especially valuable as a building 
stone where great strength is required, as in the piers of railway bridges, 
and for the foundations and walls of large buildings. 


105 


106 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Slate 


Slate is a clay rock, which occurs in thin layers. On account 
of its structure, it is easily split into very thin slabs. The 
most extensive quarries are in Pennsylvania and Vermont. Slate is 
used for covering roofs, for finishing interiors and for making laundry- 
tubs, sinks and blackboards. 



A GRANITE QUARRY 

(Courtesy ol McDonneil & Sons, Inc., of Buffalo, N. Y., and Barre, Vt.) 


Clay is a very common mineral and is found in almost every 
locality. When dry, it is quite hard, but when moist it 
becomes plastic and can be easily worked, either with tools or with 
the hand. It is not used alone as a building material, but, when com¬ 
bined with a certain proportion of sand, it constitutes the material 
from which brick, tile, terra cotta and other products are made. 








COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


107 


CEMENT Numerous kinds of cement are on the market. Nearly 
all of them are made by the grinding of some variety 
of limestone with another rock and burning the mixture. Hydrau¬ 
lic cements will harden under water and are used in cementing 
cisterns and stones in the piers of bridges and other structures 
exposed to water. When mixed with crushed stone and sand, 
cement forms concrete, which is extensively used for foundations of 
heavy buildings and bridges, for surfacing roads and laying sidewalks. 

The industries arising from the use of these materials are 
extensive and important. From the nature of the material they 
are also decidedly local in character. All of this raw material, on 
account of the expense of transportation, must be worked in its 
immediate locality; therefore, we find brick yards where clay is 
abundant, and works for cutting and finishing stone at, or near, 
the quarries, as the finished product can be transported at much 
less expense than the raw material. 

Salt is especially important, because it is the only min¬ 
eral used as an article of food. It is obtained by 
evaporating the water of the sea or salt lakes, or from salt springs 
and wells, and by mining, when it occurs in deposits in the earth. 
Most of the salt manufactured in the United States is obtained 
from salt wells. These wells may be natural or artificial. They 
are natural when the salt water is found in the earth and can be 
obtained simply by pumping. They are artificial when the salt 
water is procured by pouring fresh water into the well and allowing 
it to dissolve the salt from the vein in the earth and then pumping 
it out. Salt works in the United States are found at Syracuse, 
N. Y., and at numerous places in Michigan and Ohio. Nearly all 
the salt manufactured at these places is of a high grade and is used 
for table and dairy purposes. Salt is also used in the manufacture of 
various compounds of soda and for glazing a cheap quality of 
pottery ware. 


108 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


GRAPHITE 


Graphite, or black lead, is a variety of carbon. 


The largest deposits in the United States are in the 
vicinity of Ticonderoga, N. Y., where it is quite extensively mined. 
Graphite is a very valuable mineral and is used in the manufacture 
of lead pencils and crucibles, for lubricating machinery and for 
various kinds of polish. 

The combined mineral industries of the country rank, in 
importance, next to those of agriculture. As we have 
seen, they are widely distributed and give rise to a large number of 
occupations. On this account, it is impossible to separate some of 
them from manufacturing industries. 


IMPORTANCE 


• QUESTIONS 

What rocks in your vicinity are used for building or other purposes? Make 
a collection of specimens of the different minerals in your town or county. 

What are some of the articles made from clay? Why are bricks and pottery 
“burned”? 

Name the different purposes for which you have seen marble employed. 
Why does the United States quarry so much more marble than Italy? 

What are the different purposes for which salt is used? 


Chapter XII 


MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 

Next to agriculture, manufactures are the most 
IMPORTANCE . , . , , ., , 

essential condition to a country s prosperity, and 

the position cf a nation in the scale of civilization is closely related 

to the extent and variety of its manufacturing industries. These 

industries make use of the natural products of a country. Before 

these materials are manufactured, they are known as raw material. 

Timber, iron-ore, com, and stone are good illustrations. 

Manufactures increase the wealth of a country by turning out 
products that are far more valuable than the raw material. This 
value is added almost entirely by the labor expended in trans¬ 
forming this material into the manufactured product. The goods 
of the factory are also sold at a much greater profit than the prod¬ 
ucts of nature. In addition to this, manufactures give rise to a 
great many occupations, and among these each one can find an 
opportunity to do that for which he is best suited. This enables 
men to produce more than they could if all had to work at the 
same occupation, for each succeeds best by following the vocation 
suited to his tastes. Manufactures also increase the demand for 
goods. The great number of callings in a manufacturing com¬ 
munity multiplies wants. The blacksmith needs tools and raw 
material of one sort; the carpenter those which are not suited to the 
blacksmith, and the weaver still others, so that in order to supply 
the needs of all, a great variety of commodities becomes necessary. 

The location of manufacturing industries is deter- 
LOCATION m j nec j q U ite largely by geographical conditions. 

The most important of these are the presence or proximity of raw 

109 


110 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Power 


Steam Power 


material, available power, good transportation facilities and an 
accessible market for the manufactured articles. The first cause is 
of such nature that it can be, and often is, overlooked, as raw 
material is frequently transported a long distance before it is con¬ 
verted into the manufactured product. 

In the early history of the country water power was 
universally employed for propelling machinery, and we 
find the manufacturing industries located in New England and the 
North Atlantic States, where the numerous small mountain streams 
furnished an abundance of power. Here were erected the first 
cotton mills, and cotton w 7 as brought to them from the South. 
Here also were established the first smelting furnaces for the 
reduction of iron-ore, but both the ore and the fuel were found 
near at hand. 

The advent of the steam engine removed in a 
measure the necessity of locating factories w here 
water power could be obtained. The only disadvantage in the use 
of steam is that it is more expensive than water, yet it often 
happens that the expense of fuel is less than the difference in the 
cost of the transportation of the raw material and the manufactured 
product. For this reason we find steam sawmills erected in or 
near the lumber camps, and flour mills on the prairies of the wheat 
growing states. The use of steam power has also made it possible 
to locate manufactories in and near the great centers of trade, 
where they can secure the advantage of the means of transportation 
which are found in such centers. The effect ot steam as a motive 
power has been to establish large factories through the Central and 
Western States which by their output now have a strong influence 
upon the manufactures of the older states. While these states 
are still the leading manufacturing centers of the countrv their 
relative importance is very much less than it was. Moreover, many 
factories using hydro-electric power are in small towns. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


111 


_ The application of electricity to the operation 

Electric Power * ,. , J , ./ 

ot machinery has greatly extended the possi¬ 
bility of placing factories wherever their location would be most 
advantageous. It has also brought into use the water power of 
hundreds of streams that before were entirely useless, because 
their location was such that no factories could be erected on or 
near them. Now, by means of electric cables power generated by 
mountain streams may be applied to the operation of motors scores, 
and even hundreds, of miles away. 

Many cities and factories obtain their power from electric plants 
many miles away. Among the largest of these plants are those at 
Niagara Falls, which furnish Buffalo and other cities with light and 
power, besides supplying current to a number of large manufactories; 
and the plant at Keokuk, Iowa. These plants use a large volume of 
water, but in some places mountain streams with a small volume of 
water having a high fall furnish proportionately more power. A plant 
of this type on the Yuba River in California has a fall of 700 feet and 
the current is carried to San Francisco, in addition to supplying cities 
at a less distance with power and light. There are millions of horse 
power in the undeveloped water-power sites of the country awaiting 
the coming of enterprises to bring them into service. There is a tend¬ 
ency to form large syndicates to obtain the hydro-electric power over 

large areas and distribute it to consumers. 

Transportation is a very important factor in 
Transportation determining the location of the manufactory, 

as the expense of freight greatly reduces profits. Transportation 
by water is cheaper than that by railway; therefore, the manufac¬ 
turers of heavy wares endeavor, as far as possible, to locate where 
they can ship their products by water routes; hence, we find that 
many ports on sea, lake and river have become important manufac¬ 
turing centers. The railways have made inland transportation com¬ 
paratively cheap, and many factories are established in a locality 


112 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


where their product is used. The great agricultural implement 
factories of Chicago, and the furniture and piano factories found 
in numerous western states, are good examples of such location. 

The rapid extension of electric railways is also advantageous 
to small factories in country towns, since these railways afford 
a cheap and convenient means of transportation of both the raw 
material and the manufactured product. These roads seem des¬ 
tined in the near future to exert considerable influence in locating 
manufactories. 

The most important economic reasons in determining a loca¬ 
tion are an early beginning and a local demand for the product. 
The New England factories obtained their hold upon the country 
largely because they were the first of their kind. While, in the 
beginning, their output supplied only the local demand, yet, in a 
short time, they were enabled to supply the demands of a much 
larger territory, and by being in condition to take advantage of 
these demands they obtained a hold upon the country, which 
has made it impossible for later establishments of the same sort 
to displace their goods. 

The local demand for boots and shoes, flour, furniture and 
many other common articles, is the principal cause for the erection 
of so many factories in the West and Northwest, and most of these 
are doing a thriving business. 


MANUFACTURING 

CENTERS 


Most cities have been built up around man¬ 
ufacturing industries, or have had manufac¬ 
tories added after they were established. 
The beginning of Minneapolis was in the erection of sawmills and 
grist-mills. At the time the first mills were erected, the lumber 
and the water power were near each other. As the Northwest 
became settled, the demand for manufactured products increased, 
and the city added steam power to her water power and continued 
to increase her mills until she became the largest flour producing 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


113 


United States 


city of the world. I lie importance of Lowell, Fall River, and 
New Bedford, Mass,, is due almost entirely to their cotton mills. 

I his is equally true of many other towns in New England and 
New Y ork ; while Birmingham, Ala., has been developed into a 
thriving city on account of its favorable location for the manufacture 
of iron and steel. 

1 he Uhiited States is the largest manufacturing country of the 
world. The val ue of her manufactured products exceeds $24,000,- 
000,000 a year, which is more than twice the value of the manu¬ 
factures of the United Kingdom. The country is also noted for 
the variety of its manufactures. This is caused by our great 
extent of territory, difference in climate and the diverse local con¬ 
ditions which adapt so many local¬ 
ities to special lines of manufac¬ 
ture. In addition to this, the 
inventive genius of the American 
people, and their high standard 
of living have created demands 
for a great variety of products. 
The greater part of our manu¬ 
factures are consumed at home, 
leaving only a small portion for 
export. 

With the increase in population it is probable that a still 
larger proportion of our manufactures will be required for home 
consumption. If this should be the case, our exports would fall 
off. However, this condition of affairs would not necessarily 
indicate a lack of national prosperity. Every country makes such 
uses of its products as are best suited to its economic conditions, 
and the amount of exports is not always a true indication of a 
country’s prosperity. 


Rest of the World 


MANCKACTURES 




114 


COMMERCE AND INDU8TRT 


QUESTIONS 

Show how manufactures increase the wealth of a country. 

What effect has the development of electric powei had upon the loca¬ 
tion of manufacturies? Is this beneficial? Why? 

Why were the first manufacturing centers located in the New England 
and'the Eastern States? 

Why was the erection of cotton mills in the Southern States so long 
delayed ? 

What causes make the cities located on the Great Lakes important 
manufacturing centers ? 

What causes have combined to make the United States such an 
important manufacturing country? 


Chapter XIII 

IMPORTANT MANUFACTURES 


TEXTILES 


Clothing is necessary to life and comfort, and the farther a 
people are removed from the equator, the more indispensable it 
becomes. We use clothing for three purposes : decency, comfort 
and ornament, and because they are so intimately associated with 
our welfare, the products of the textile industry maintain an espe¬ 
cially intimate relation to us. 

The manufacture of textiles is one of the most 
important industries of the country and the 
world, and it seems eminently fitting that the people who make 
the wisest use of the textile fabrics should become the most skilful 
in their production. These are the people of the temperate zones, 
and the nations of the north temperate zone now practically supply 
the fabrics for the world. 

There are various branches of the textile industry, such as the 
manufacture of yarns, knit goods and woven goods ; and to these 
must be added the art of dyeing, which is a feature of each 
branch. The fibers used in the United States are, in the order of 
their importance : cotton, wool, silk, flax and hemp. In some 
fabrics we find two or more of these fibers mixed. The most 
common mixture is that of cotton with wool. Silk is also mixed 
with wool, and with cotton, and, occasionally, with linen. These 
mixtures enable the manufacturer to produce a much larger 
variety of fabrics than he could by using only one kind of fiber. 
This variety is also increased by the degree of fineness of the work 
and by various methods of weaving and finishing the cloth. 

115 


116 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


The manufacture of textile fabrics in America began 
IS 0 ^ with the settlement of the colonies. Every household 
had its spinning-wheel and hand-loom, and nearly every farmer 
raised sheep and flax, and it was a part of the work of the women 
in each family to manufacture the cloth required for clothing and 
bedding. Since all this work had to be performed by hand labor, 
and with the crudest machinery, the task was no light one. When 
the population had increased to such an extent as to cause numer¬ 
ous towns to spring into existence, small factories were erected, 
which, in a measure, relieved the women from manufacturing 
cloth, though, in the farming communities, this practice continued 
for many years after the Revolutionary War. 

While in the beginning simple machinery operated by hand 
power made it possible for any one to engage in the manufacture 
of yarn or clothing, with the advent of the factory more complex 
machinery was introduced. This required an investment of capi¬ 
tal, and as the industry grew we find that factories increased in 
size and capital became more and more concentrated, until the 
textile industry was located in a few large centers of the New 
England States, the most important being Lowell, Fall River, 
and New Bedford, Massachusetts ; Nashua and Manchester, New 
Hampshire, and some towns in Rhode Island and Connecticut. 

During the last quarter of a century the United States has 
made much greater progress than other countries in the manufac¬ 
ture of textiles, though she does not lead the world in her output 
of this product. Some of the most delicate and ingenious 
machinery employed in the production of the finest and most 
beautiful fabrics is the product of American ingenuity, while 
American methods of management have made it possible to operate 
the large factories in this country on such plans as to produce 
better results than have been secured in the countries of Europe. 
The development of the textile industry is due to four invem 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


117 


feions : The spinning-jenny by Hargreaves, the water frame by 
Arkwright; the mule-jenny, which was a combination of the 
spinning-jenny and the water frame, by Richard Compton ; and 
the power-loom by Edmund Cartwright. All of these inventions 
originated in England and were produced by English workmen. 
Each made it possible for one operator to do the work that it would 
require scores of persons to perform by hand labor. The first of 
these inventions came into use in 1767, and the last in 1785. 
Thus within a period of eighteen years the textile industry of 
England was revolutionized by the ingenuity of her workmen. 

The increase in cotton manufacture, resulting from these inven¬ 
tions, created such a demand for cotton that it was impossible for 
the planters to raise and prepare a sufficient quantity to supply the 
market. This difficulty was met by the American invention of the 
cotton-gin, by Eli Whitney, in 1792. This has already been 
described in the chapter on cotton. Historians are agreed that no 
other inventions ever did so much for a people as have the inven¬ 
tions named for the English-speaking nations, and it is in these 
nations that the manufacture of textile fabrics has reached its 
highest development. 

Factories seldom deal with retail merchants or customers. 
When the goods are finished they are put up in bales of from 
twenty to fifty yards each, and the most expensive qualities are 
carefully wrapped in paper before boxing. The goods are shipped 
from the factory in large boxes or cases, and are sold directly to 
the wholesale merchant, through whom they reach the retail trade 
which disposes of them to the individual customers. Besides the 
goods manufactured in .this country, large quantities of woolens 
and silks are imported, though American goods are sometimes 
placed upon the market as imported, and the product of the 
American mills is of such quality that it is often difficult to dis¬ 
tinguish between the finest fabrics made at home and those of 


118 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


France, Germany, or England. Japanese and Chinese silks can easily 
be distinguished because of their peculiar fiber. No mills of America 
or Europe manufacture a fabric of this type. 

The manufacture of cotton is the largest and most important 
Cotton textile industry in the United States. The industry is most 
fully developed in the New England States, where the first looms were 
placed in operation, and in South Carolina and Georgia. The manu¬ 
facturing is done in large factories and practically all the work is done 
by machinery. There are many varieties of cotton fabrics on the 
market, each adapted to some special need. 

Cotton by Countries in Bales 


Country. 
United States 
British India 

Egypt. 

Uganda . 


Bales. 

11,425,000 

4,743,000 

999,000 

28,070 


Woolens 


Woolens were the first textile fabrics manufactured 
in America. The fiber of wool is much more easily 
worked than that of the cotton plant. Woolen fabrics are 
especially suited for clothing of people following the vocation of 
agriculture, and living in a cool climate. The fiber can be spun and 
woven by the use of the most simple machinery, and is particularly 
suited to the conditions which are always found in a newly settled 
country. We have already noted how cloth was manufactured 
in the homes of our forefathers. The advent of machinery caused this 
industry gradually to change from the homes to the manufacturing 
centers, until now spinning-wheels and handlooms are so rare that 
they have become curiosities. 


In extent, the woolen industry does not equal that of cotton, 
yet, owing to the greater value placed upon woolens, the value of 






Commence an r> industry 


110 


In extent, the woolen industry does not equal that of cotton, 
yet, owing to the greater value placed upon woolens, the value of 
the yearly output in 1915 was $435,978,000, an increase of 75.2 per 
cent in ten years. As in the manufacture of cotton, the United 
States is also exceeded by England in the manufacture of woolen 
goods. 

The people of the United States are the largest users of 

silk in the world. Much of this is imported, but a large 
quantity is also woven in this country. Several attempts at grow¬ 
ing silk have been made in the United States, but they have never 
succeeded because it requires so much labor to raise the silk worms 
that the United States can not afford to compete with other coun¬ 
tries in this industry, and our silk mills are obliged to obtain their 
raw product from France, Italy, Japan, and China. The silk 
usually reaches the American manufacturer in skeins, just as it is 
wound from the cocoons. It is then ready for the process known 
as throwing, which is the silk manufacturer's term for spinning, or 
twisting. After throwing, the silk is ready for weaving and is 
passed to the looms. The great silk mills are nearly all located in 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut. Probably nine-tenths 
of the silk manufactured in the country is made in these states. 
An important feature of this industry is the manufacture of sewing 
silk, to which entire mills are devoted. 

The value of silk manufactured in 1914 was about $197,000,000. 
This industry has the peculiar feature of importing its raw material 
from a great distance, for the purpose of manufacturing it at home. 
Aided by government protection, the manufacture of silk, which 
started in a very small way, has now become an industry of con¬ 
siderable importance and one of great value to the people, because 
goods of the same quality can be manufactured in the United States 
and placed upon the market at a lower price than they can be 
imported from either Europe or China. The demand for cotton and 
woolen fabrics during the World War was a great stimulus to the silk 
industry in the United States. 


120 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Cottons, woolens and silks, in the order named, are the tex¬ 
tiles manufactured in large quantities in the United States. 
The manufacture of linen is carried on only to a limited extent, and we 
depend almost entirely upon Holland and Ireland for our choice linen 
fabrics. 

The skins of animals have been used for clothing in all 

FURS 

ages. When preserved with the hair on, they are known 
as furs, and in this form the skins of some animals, particularly the 
otter, the sable and the fur-seal, constitute some of the most beautiful 
and expensive material from which wearing apparel is made. Most 
of the fur-bearing animals live in a cold climate and in regions sparsely 
populated. Only a few are now found in the United States, and the 
taking of animals for their furs is no longer an important industry of 
the country. 

When the skins of animals are dressed wdthout the 

LEATHER they f orm leather. Raw skins from cattle and 

horses are known to the trade as hides, -while those from small animals 
are designated as skins, as sheepskins, calfskins and goatskins. Leather 
has become such a necessity that none of the leather manufacturing 
countries produce enough hides from the animals killed to supply them¬ 
selves with shoes, so in many of the grazing regions of the tropics and 
the south temperate climate thousands of animals are killed just for 
their hides, to ship to the United States and some countries of Europe, 
the carcasses of these animals being left as useless. 

_ T The most extensive use of leather is for the manufacture 

Uses 

of boots and shoes. The uppers of men’s shoes are made 
from calfskin and goatskin, also other leather obtained from the hides 
of young cattle. The uppers of women’s shoes are usually goatskin 
or sheepskin, according to the grade of shoe. Other important uses of 
leather are for harness, belting for machinery, upholstering furniture, 
the manufacture of gloves and mittens, and bookbinding. 

The United States is the leading country of the world in the 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


121 


manufacture of leather, both in quantity and the quality of its prod¬ 
uct. Its tanneries produce enough to supply all home markets, and 
also to enable them to export large quantities. This requires more 
hides than can be obtained from the meat-packing industry in our 
own country, and the balance is supplied from the countries of South 
America, mostly from the Argentine Republic. Our annual output 
of leather exceeds $500,000,000 in value. 


Formerly all boots and shoes were made by hand. 
Each shoemaker performed all the labor necessary to 
complete the shoes, and this method of manufac- 


BOOTS AND 
SHOES 


ture continued until long after the Revolutionary War. For years 
it was customary for the shoemaker to travel from house to house 
with his kit of tools and make up the leather into such footwear as 
the family needed. When the country became more densely popu¬ 
lated, the shoemaker found it to his advantage to remain in one 
location and have his customers come to him. So the shoemakers 
built small shops, in each of which one or possibly two men worked. 

The development of the boot and shoe industry, from these 
early stages to its present condition, is of great interest because it 
shows more clearly than the growth of any other industry, what 
has been accomplished through the division of labor and specializ¬ 
ing the occupations of workmen. It is considered that the boot 
and shoe industry is the most perfectly organized of any manufac¬ 
turing industry in the country. This evolution had its beginning 
in the city of Lynn, Mass., which, with Brockton, are the most 
important centers of the industry. There were many small shoe 
shops in Lynn in each of which all the processes necessary to the 
manufacture of boots and shoes were carried on. Several of the 
proprietors of these shops decided that it would be to their advan¬ 
tage to combine and divide the different processes among their work¬ 
men so that each man should give his attention to only one of the 
various processes. Some workmen were set to cutting the patterns 


122 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


from the stock, others to sewing these together, and still others to 
fastening the uppers to the soles. The result of this venture was so 
satisfactory that large shops soon took the place of the small ones, 
and these finally gave place to the shoe factory. 

The modern shoe factory is the result of the application of ma¬ 
chinery to the manufacture of boots and shoes. As soon as the sewing 
machine was adapted to this work, it greatly increased the possibilities 
of the shoe shops, and this machine has now been adapted to all of the 
different uses to which a sewing machine can be put in the manufac¬ 
ture of boots and shoes. Some machines sew on the buttons, others 
make the button-holes and others sew on soles. The invention of 
other machines has kept pace with the modifications of the sewing 
machines, so that now almost every process required to produce a shoe 
is performed by machinery. 

Massachusetts is the leading state in the manufacture of boots 
and shoes, but the industry is more generally scattered over the 
country than the textile industry. Large factories are now found 
in nearly all the important cities of the Union, and through the 
Central and Western States occasional factories are seen in small 
towns. St. Louis and Cincinnati are the leading centers for the West 
and their production is rapidly increasing each year. As in the 
manufacture of leather, the United States leads the world in its pro¬ 
duction of boots and shoes, both as to quantity and quality. Our 
annual output exceeds 590,000,000 pairs, and the value in 1914 was 
$501,760,586. This was greatly increased by the war in Europe. 

Printing has, more than any other industry, con- 
PRINTING AND tributed to human advancement. It has been the 
PUBLISHING means of preserving the wisdom of the past, and 

scattering it abroad in the present. At the same 
time it has kept mankind informed of the world’s progress from day 
to day. Printing is related to every other industry, and without it, 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


123 


business methods now in general use would have to be abandoned. 
Without printing, business men could not read of the state of the 
markets on their way to the office in the morning, nor learn of the 
day’s transactions as they return from their labors. Printing also 
increases the general intelligence of a people, and this leads to a 
multiplicity of needs that continually create demands for new products. 
From every point of view, we find printing to be the handmaid of all 
industries, and no account of our industrial and commercial life is 
complete without a sketch of the publishing business. 

Printing and publishing are directly connected with the manu¬ 
facture of paper, the making of printing-presses, of type and type¬ 
setting machines, and the manufacture of printers’ supplies. While 
each of these industries is in itself of considerable importance, those 
connected with the manufacture of paper and printing machinery 
are the most extensive. 

QUESTIONS 

Why were woolen and linen fabrics made in the United States so long before 
the manufacture of cotton was introduced? 

Why has the manufacture of textiles in England and the United States 
reached its present development? 

Why are cotton goods so much less expensive than woolens? Why are 
calicoes called “prints”? 

Which are the more durable, cotton or linen goods? 

Why is the manufacture of silk goods so extensive in the United States, 
when all the raw material has to be imported? 

Why is so little linen manufactured in the United States? 





MCCORMICK HARVESTER WORKS OF THE INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY, CHICAGO, 




























Chapter XIV 


OTHER INDUSTRIES 


To describe all the manfactures of our country would require 
many volumes the size of this. While those already mentioned 
are among the largest and most important, there are scores of 
others of such magnitude that they could not be removed from our 
industrial or commercial life without causing a business stagnation. 
Some of these deal with large articles and require extensive estab¬ 
lishments and much capital, such as the manufacture of agricultural 
implements and electrical appliances; while others deal with 
smaller articles and are conducted on a much smaller scale. 

The most important agricultural implements 
are those for preparing the soil for the seed, 
such as plows and harrows ; those for plant¬ 
ing, like planters and seeders; those for tilling the soil, such as 
the various patterns of hoes and cultivators ; those used for har¬ 
vesting, such as the mowing-machine, hay rake and tedder, the 
harvester and binder and the corn-cutter; and those used for 
preparing the crops for market, such as the threshing-machine, the 
corn-sheller or corn-thresher and the cotton-gin. To these must 
be added the innumerable hand tools, each of which is manufac¬ 
tured in lar^e numbers. 

C 

The income from the manufacture of agricultural implements 


AGRICULTURAL 

IMPLEMENTS 


exceeds $168,000,000 yearly. Illinois is the leading state and 
Chicago the leading city in the industry. Here are located the 
works of the International Harvester Company, which supplies 
most of the country with harvesters and mowers. On account 

of its lightness, durability and convenience, American agricultural 

125 


126 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


machinery is in demand in all of the agricultural countries of 
Europe and also in South America and Australia. 

It is estimated by the Department of Agriculture that the in¬ 
ventions and improvements of agricultural machinery since 1860 
have caused the following reduction in the cost of producing crops : 
corn, from 34f cents to 10£ cents per bushel; wheat, from 17f 
cents to 3i cents per bushel; hay, from $3.06 to $1.29 per ton. 
At the present time the amount of human labor, on an average, 
required to produce a bushel of corn is 41 minutes, and tor a 


bushel of wheat, 10 minutes. 

This great saving in the cost of production has made it pos¬ 
sible to sell the most important food products at such reduced 
prices as to bring them within the reach of all of our people. 
Agricultural implements touch the life of all classes and, directly 
or indirectly, affect the prosperity of all industries on account of 
the relation of these industries to agriculture. 


ELECTRICAL 

APPLIANCES 


Electricity has become a common agent in our 
industrial and commercial life. In addition to 


its oldest uses in the telegraph and telephone 
and electric light, it is now employed to propel cars and machin¬ 
ery, to separate metals from their ores and in the manufacture of 
numerous chemical products extensively used in the arts. 

The demand for electrical appliances has become so general 
that their manufacture has created an extensive and important 
business. Factories for the manufacture of electrical machinery 
are found in all large cities. New York leads in the industry and 
Chicago is second, but smaller cities contain factories equally effi¬ 
cient, though operated on a less extensive scale. 

While the United States is the land of great 
achievements, and the twentieth century is the day 
of gigantic enterprises, we must not despise the 
small things which enter into our daily life. The country contains 


SMALL 

ARTICLES 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


127 


numerous industries, which, when compared in value with those 
already described, are small, yet, on account of their relation to 
other industries and to commerce, are of such importance that, 
should any one of them be destroyed, its loss would cause serious 
inconvenience, both in the United States and several of the coun¬ 
tries with which we are carrying on an extensive commerce. 

Gloves and mittens are necessary for com- 
Gloves and Mittens f or t and ornament. Every year there are 

manufactured in the country nearly 3,000,000 dozen pairs of 
leather gloves and mittens, to say nothing of those made of yarn 
and other material. The largest number is made in the state ot 
New York, which has more factories than all of the other states 
combined. Illinois, Wisconsin and California are also prominent 
in the manufacture of these articles. Most of the leather used is 
kid, sheepskin and dogskin. 

The adaptation of the gum of the 
Rubber Boots and Shoes ru | ) p er tree to practical use is due to 

the inventive genius of an American, Mr. Charles Goodyear. 
After a number of years of trial it is said that Mr. Goodyear made 
his discovery by accident. The story is, that, after spending sev¬ 
eral years of his time and all of his property in trying to discover 
some means of hardening rubber so that it would not be sticky, he 
was one day engaged in an animated conversation with some 
friends who were in his shop. Upon a stove near which he stood 
was a kettle containing some rubber in a melted state, and with 
which he had mixed some sulphur. In the course ot his conver- 
sation he upset the kettle and spilled the contents upon the hot 
stove. When the rubber and sulphur were raised to the required 
temperature, they united and formed the long sought compound. 
Mr. Goodyear obtained a patent upon his process in 1844, and the 
successful manufacture of rubber goods began that year. 

Rubber boots and shoes have become a household necessity, and 


128 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


their use saves thousands of people from exposure and discomfort. 
Most of the factories are located in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and 
Rhode Island. Chicago has a number, and there are a few others 
in different cities. But the rubber tires for automobiles far exceed 
in value the rubber boots and shoes manuafctured in the country. 
The total output of rubber goods for 1916 was valued at $550,000,000. 

Buttons There are over 240 button factories in the country, 
and the yearly value of their combined product is 
some over $20,290,000, which is quite a fortune to be expended on 
the production of so small an article. Buttons are made from 
more than a dozen different materials. The most important of 
these are agate, bone, glass, horn, vegetable ivory, pearl or shell, 
and metal, including nickel, steel, and brass. 

What are known as fresh water pearl buttons are made from 
the shell of a clam which is found extensively in the Mississippi 
River and some of its tributaries. In 1890, this industry was 
unknown in the United States, but now it gives employment to 
several thousand people, and it has given value to a shell that 
before was considered worthless. The largest quantity of fresh 
water pearl buttons is made in the state of Iowa, where the industry 
started. 

Needles and Pins Until the invention of the sewing machine 

but few needles were made in this country, 

but the necessity for machine needles led to their manufacture by 
sewing machine companies, and in time this manufacture was 
extended to include common needles. England leads the world in 
the manufacture of needles, and those of the best quality are still 
imported from that country. 

Simple as this little implement is, the process of its manufac¬ 
ture is quite complicated. Even with all of the machinery now in 
use in their manufacture, every needle passes through the hands of 
seventy workmen before it is completed. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


129 

The pin also is an insignificant article, but one upon whose 
manufacture a great deal of forethought has been expended. Pins 
are made by machinery from coils of brass wire. The work is 
done so rapidly that a continuous stream of pins falls from the 
machine. Over 30,000,000 are made in the United States in every 
working day of the year. Before this work was done by machinery, 
each pin passed, in the course of its manufacture, through the 
hands of fourteen workmen. Centuries ago, pins were so 
scarce and so expensive that they were used only by the most 
wealthy people. 

Pencils and Pens Allhou S h the use of the typewriter has 

become almost universal, millions of pencils 

and pens are used in the country every year. The great factories 

in which these are produced are in New York, New Jersey, and 

Pennsylvania. The graphite, from which the lead of the pencil is 

made, is taken from mines near Ticonderoga, N. Y., and the wood 

for the cases comes from the swamps of Florida. The United 

States manufactures about one-half a million gross a year. 

Steel pens are made from cast steel of the best quality. Most 
of it is imported from England and Sweden. Some over a million 
gross are manufactured yearly, and to this must be added 
the gold pens and the various kinds of fountain pens. While 
England still leads in the manufacture of steel pens, the 
American factories now nearly supply the needs of our own 
country. 

Time Pieces Most the c l° c k s the country are made in 

Connecticut, and watches in Massachusetts, Illi¬ 
nois, and New Jersey. Accuracy and cheapness characterize the 
American watch. This is because the works are made entirely by 
machinery and are always exact. The largest watch factory in the 
world is at Waltham, Massachusetts, and the second in Elgin, 
Illinois. The Waltham factory alone manufactures more watches 


130 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


in a year than any other foreign country except Switzerland, its 
output being 600,000. 

Time-pieces are now so common that we scarcely think of 
their value until deprived of them, but this is because their manu¬ 
facture has been made so cheap that almost anyone who desires 
may possess a clock or a watch. Before the manufacture of watches 
by machinery, their expense was so great that but few people 
could afford to own them. 


Waste By-products 


Some of our most common articles in 
daily use are made from products that 
were formerly thrown away as worthless. Soap is made from the 
waste tissue and fat from the great meat packing houses. Glue 
comes from the heads and feet of slaughtered animals, and some of 
the most valuable fertilizers are made from the blood and offal. 

Formerly, the slag formed in smelting iron was removed from 
the smelting works at considerable expense and destroyed; but 
now it is extensively used in making a valuable cement and in the 
production of paving stones. This industry is much more exten¬ 
sive in Europe than in the United States. The cities of Brussels, 
Metz, and Paris now contain a great deal of pavement made from 
slag. In England it is manufactured into bricks of a superior 
quality. 

Sawdust has now become an article of value, when only a few 
years ago it was burned in the rubbish heap, or allowed to float 
down stream. By a process, discovered by a French cabinet¬ 
maker, the sawdust is made into an artificial wood by the use of 
cement, great pressure, and intense heat. The value of this wood 
is far greater than that of the natural timber. It is hard, strong, 
and capable of taking a high polish, so that the articles made from 
it are often more beautiful than those made from rosewood or 
mahogany. 

The paper industry originally depended upon rags and waste 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


131 


rope for its raw material, and it still consumes all of these that can 
be procured, but the source will not supply the present demand for 
paper, so that wood pulp and other material have to be added. But 
the use of these substances should not blind us to the fact that large 
quantities of rags and waste rope are used by the paper mills of the 
country. 


Automobiles 


The iron from old tin cans is fused into steel of good quality. 
The food waste and garbage of great cities, and even the grease ob¬ 
tained in cleaning wool, are all worked into something of use and 
value, and the fact that science and invention have made it possible 
to turn so many of these substances to practical use is one of the great¬ 
est importance in our industrial life. In all occupations economy 
and frugality are necessary to success, and nowhere do w r e find these 
virtues practised to a greater degree than in our great industrial enter¬ 
prises, and this practice is one of the principal reasons for our success 
as a manufacturing nation. 

Steam carriages were known in England and 
France before the Revolutionary War, but the 
development of the automobile in its present form dates from 1884, 
when the perfection of the gasoline engine made such a vehicle possible. 
Since 1900, the use of automobiles has increased very rapidly. From 
a mere pleasure carriage the automobile has become a business neces¬ 
sity in both city and country. The auto truck is not only replacing 
the horse dray in cities; it is, on short hauls, competing in many places 
with the railroads in the transportation of freight. Moreover, farmers 
are using it for hauling their produce to market. The manufacture 
of automobiles and auto trucks is one of the great industries of the 
country. In 1921, there were about 8,888,000 in use in the United 
States, and the license fees for the preceding year amounted to $102,- 
000,000. 



Oto. F.Crawl, E«0.CUc»Jo. 




































Chapter XV 


TRADE ROUTES 


ROADS 


When the country was new, all merchandise trans¬ 
ported overland was carried on the backs of men or 
animals, and by boat whenever possible. The old overland trade 
route, in many instances, followed the most important Indian trails. 
These were located with reference to the ease and safety with which 
they could be traversed, or to their convenience in leading from one 
place to another. 

The Indian trails became bridle paths, which joined neighbor¬ 
ing settlements, and, as the country developed, these • routes 
broadened into wagon roads. Previous to the Revolution, roads, 
over which stage wagons made regular trips, connected New York 
and Philadelphia; others connected Boston with some of the more 
important towns in Connecticut, and these towns with New York. 
However, but little attention was given to road making until after 
the war for independence. 

Road making in the United States has not kept pace with the 
commercial development of the country on account of the vast 
extent of our territory and the rapid settlement of new states. In 
the older states the principal roads are fairly good, but in those 
west of New York and south of the Ohio River the roads are 
entirely inadequate to the demands made upon them. In all of 
these states there are but a few miles of stone road, and in certain 
seasons the dirt roads are well nigh impassable on account of mud. 
The growth of the country and the rapid development of our com¬ 
mercial interests make good roads a necessity to all agricultural 

communities, and both the national and state governments are now 

133 



A RAILROAD LOOP IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 
















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


135 


RAILROADS 


making large appropriations for the improvement of public highways. 
Skillful engineers are employed in laying out and grading the roads 
and gravel, cement, asphalt and other preparations are employed for 
surfacing. 

Railroads are the greatest overland trade routes 
of the country. Beginning with the construction 
of the Baltimore & Ohio and the Delaware & Hudson Canal Roads 
in 1830 and 1832, they have gradually extended their lines until 
now railways are found in nearly every habitable portion of the 
land. The first railway lines followed the river valleys, and for 
many years it was not thought possible to construct a railroad 
through mountainous, or even hilly regions, but the science of 
engineering has now overcome all difficulties ; impassable moun¬ 
tains are tunnelled, rivers and lakes are bridged, and a railroad 
can be constructed wherever it is desired, provided the company 
is willing to pay the cost. 

We should notice here that tunnelling a mountain or bridging 
a stream has the same effect as removing these obstructions, as far 
as transportation is concerned. The most important tunnel of this 
sort is the Hoosac Tunnel in Massachusetts, whfch is some over 
four miles in length. Numerous others of greater or less length 
are found in the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains. The great 
rivers of the United States and Canada are now bridged in numer¬ 
ous places. Some of the most noted of these bridges are the 
Eads Bridge, crossing the Mississippi at St. Louis ; the railway 
bridges crossing the Ohio at Cairo, Ill., and Louisville, Ky. ; the 
steel-arch bridge across the Niagara River at Niagara Falls and 
the great cantilever bridge at the same place. Numerous other 
important bridges also exist, but to enumerate them all would 
make a list too long for a work of this size. 

In numerous places, where, on account of the breadth of the 
body of water or the danger of obstructing navigation, bridges are 



LARGEST PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE- IN THE WORLD (1923) 



LARGEST ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE IN THE WORLD (1923) 























COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


137 


impracticable, ferry boats are employed to transport trains across. 
These ferries are large steamboats constructed especially for this 
purpose, and most of them are capable of carrying from ten to 
twenty-four cars at once. Some of the most important railway 



ICE-CUTTING RAILWAY FERRY 

This ferry is 302 feet long and can carry 18 freight cars at a load. It plies between St. Ignace and 
Mackinaw City, Mich. A special device for cutting the ice enables it to keep the channel open the 
entire winter. 

ferries are those crossing the East River at New \ork, the Eetioit 
River at Detroit, and Port Huron; those crossing the Ohio River 
at Cairo, Ill. ; those crossing the Straits of Mackinaw between 
St. Ignace and Mackinaw City, Mich. ; and those crossing the bay 
at San Francisco. The boats crossing the Straits of Mackinaw are 












138 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


of a peculiar style and are so constructed that they can cut their 
way through the ice during the winter. These boats are among 
the largest railway ferries in the world. There are also a number of 
ferries plying between Milwaukee and ports on the eastern shore. 

The most important lines of railway extend east and west, or 
nearly so. There are, however, a few exceptions to this general 
rule. The lines in the northern New England States, and many 
of those in the Southern States, extend north and south, while the 
Illinois Central extends from Chicago to New Orleans and forms an 
important north and south trunk line. This railway has numerous 
branches extending from Chicago to St. Paul, from Chicago to 
St. Louis, and numerous shorter lines which connect the main line 
with other important towns on the Mississippi. 

* The railways of the United States are naturally grouped 
according to the extent of their lines and their connections, as 
follows: 

The New England Group The railwa y s of the New England 

States belong almost entirely to the 
Boston and Maine, the New York, New Haven and Hartford, the 
Maine Central, and the Grand Trunk Systems. The main lines 
and branches of these combined systems touch almost every town 
of importance in the states through which they pass. Their princi¬ 
pal connections with western lines are made at Albany, N. Y., New 
York City, and Montreal. The important railway centers in the 
New England States are Portland, Maine, Boston and Springfield, 
Mass., and New London and Hartford, Conn. 

The Central Group The railroads in this group are arranged in 

two divisions: those running from eastern 
points to Chicago, and those running from Chicago westward. The 
important lines of the first division are the New York Central and 
Hudson River Railroad running from New York to Buffalo, and its 
extensions, the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the Michigan 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


139 


Central, both of which reach from Buffalo to Chicago; the Pennsyl¬ 
vania System, also extending from New York to Chicago, by way of 
Philadelphia, and having many important branch lines leading to 
Columbus, Cincinnati, Fort Wayne, and numerous other important 
towns in Ohio and Indiana; the Baltimore and Ohio, extending from 
New York to Baltimore and Washington, thence westward by the 
Potomac and Ohio Rivers as far as St. Louis, with a northern line 
by way of Harrisburg to Chicago. Other important lines in this 
group are the Wabash and Pacific, the Lake Erie and Western, the 
Chicago, Cleveland, Cincinnati and St. Louis, usually known as the 
Big Four. 

The important lines of the second division are, the Chicago and 
Northwestern, with lines extending from Chicago to St. Paul and 
Minneapolis, from Chicago to Duluth, Chicago to Omaha, and 
branch lines extending into Iowa and South Dakota; the Chicago, 
Milwaukee and St. Paul, extending from Chicago to St. Paul by way 
of Milwaukee, and with important branches running through 
Northern Illinois, Iowa, and Southern Minnesota; also the Chicago, 
Burlington and Quincy, usually known as the Burlington System. 
This system has important lines extending from Chicago to St. 
Paul, and St. Paul to St. Louis, with a line to Denver by way of 
Kansas City. It will be noticed the roads leading out of Chicago 
in many instances extend beyond the Mississippi. They form 
the connection between the roads of the first division in this group 
and the great trunk lines which extend from the Mississippi and 
Missouri River points to the Pacific coast. 

The most important railway centers in the central group are 
New York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, 
Cincinnati, Fort Wayne, South Bend, Chicago, and St. Louis. 

This group contains those systems which 
form the great transcontinental lines, so 
called because they make connections which reach across the coun- 


The Western Group 


140 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


try, though no one road or single system of roads in the United 
States has a continuous line from the Atlantic to the Pacific. These 
lines are, taking them in their order from north to south, the Great 
Northern and Northern Pacific, extending from St. Paul and Duluth 
through Minnesota, North Dakota, Montana, and Idaho to points 
in Washington and Oregon; the Chicago, St. Paul and Puget Sound; 
the Union Pacific, extending from Omaha, through Nebraska, 
Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada, to California points; the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe, extending from Chicago to San Francisco by 
way of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona; and the Chicago, 
Rock Island and Pacific, which also is a route extending westward 
from Chicago through Colorado and Arizona to California. Of 
these, the Union Pacific, now generally known as the Southern 
Pacific, was the first line constructed, and its completion in 1869 
marked the beginning of a new industrial era in the country. All 
of these great lines have received government aid in their construc¬ 
tion, in most cases by large grants of land which the roads have sold 
to settlers, but in some cases, particularly that of the Union Pacific, 
by the government guaranteeing the bonds issued for the con¬ 
struction of the road. 

The great railway centers connecting with this group of roads 
are Chicago, St. Louis, St. Paul, and Minneapolis, Omaha, Kansas 
City, Denver, San Francisco, Portland, and Seattle. It will be 
noticed that Chicago is in the territory of the central group, but 
it is practically the center from which all these great lines radiate 
and properly belongs with them on account of this relation. 

The Southern Group The roads of the southern are 

less extensive than those of the others, 

but most of them are now combined into systems. Among these 
worthy of mention are the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Queen and Cres¬ 
cent, the Atlantic Coast system, the Louisville and Southern, the 
Georgia Central, and the Illinois Central. The most important of 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


141 


these lines have direct connections with the lines of the Central 
Group at Cincinnati, Cairo, and St. Louis. The important rail¬ 
way centers are Louisville, Nashville, Atlanta, New Orleans, and 
Jacksonville. 

The United States has some over 264,000 miles of railways, 
which is over one-third the mileage of the world. Most of the lines 
are combined into great systems, each of which is under a single 
management. The largest of these is the Pennsylvania, which in¬ 
cludes some over 11,200 miles of track. Others of importance are 
the New York Central, the Chicago and Northwestern, the Santa 
Fe, the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Burlington, and each 
of the great Pacific lines. The combined roads have over 65,000 
locomotives, 53,000 passenger cars, and about 2,325,000 freight cars. 
They carry yearly nearly a billion passengers, and about two billion 
tons of freight, and employ over a million men. The capacity of 
the freight cars ranges from thirty to forty tons. The speed of the 
passenger trains is from forty to fifty miles, with a speed of from 
sixty to sixty-five miles per hour for some of the fastest express 
trains. Through freight trains average about thirty miles an hour, 
except in mountainous regions. The average tariff per mile for 
passengers is a little over three cents, and the freight rates are 
about eighty-five cents per ton for each hundred miles. 

The inland waterways of the United States have 
an extent of about 26,000 miles, as follows: navi¬ 
gable rivers, 14,000 miles; canals, 4,000 miles; 

lakes, 8,000 miles. 

The most important navigable rivers belong to the 
Mississippi system, and are the Mississippi, the Ohio, 
the Missouri, the Arkansas, and the Red, with a few smaller tribu¬ 
taries. 

The Mississippi is navigable as far as St. Paul, and between 
St. Louis and the Gulf has numerous lines of steamers making 


INLAND 

WATERWAYS 


Rivers 














COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


143 


regular trips throughout the year. The Ohio is navigable as far as 
Pittsburgh, and furnishes a very important outlet for the coal, iron 
and other heavy products of that part of the country. The 
Missouri is navigable as far as Fort Benton during high water, 
and to the mouth of the Yellowstone at other times, but the con¬ 
struction of the western trunk lines of railway has made the navi¬ 
gation of this stream of less importance than formerly. Most of the 
rivers of the Atlantic Slope are navigable to the fall line, and steam¬ 
ers ascend the Hudson as far as Albany. Navigable rivers afford 
convenient transportation at lower rates than those charged by 
the railways and those of the Mississippi system are of special 
value because of their length and the means they afford of reaching 
points far removed from the sea coast. 

Lakes ^he mos ^ important lake routes are those connected with 
the Great Lakes. They include routes from Duluth to 
Lake Huron points, such as Port Huron and Detroit, and to Cleve¬ 
land and Buffalo, and other ports on Lake Erie; also routes 
from Chicago, Milwaukee, and several Michigan points, through the 
Straits of Mackinaw to the ports of Lake Huron and Erie. The 
railroads of this section have some advantage over the lake routes, 
because the latter are open to navigation only 225 days in the 
year, while the railroads are open the year round; but the cheap 
transportation offered by the lines of steamers plying over these 
waters gives them an abundance of traffic during the open season. 
During the season, lake steamers, drawing 20 feet of water, and as 
large as many ocean steamers, make regular trips between Duluth 
and Chicago. The best of these boats can make 14 to 20 round 
trips from the first of May to the first of December. On their 
downward trips, boats, from Duluth and Lake Superior points, 
carry cargoes of grain, copper, flour, and iron-ore; from Chicago 
and Lake Michigan points, grain and merchandise; on their return 
trips about one-fourth of all boats are usually loaded with coal or 



LOWER APPROACH TO THIRD LOCK, KNOWN AS THE DAVIS LOCK, AT SAULT STE. MARIE, MICHIGAN 




















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


145 


merchandise. Some lines carry both freight and passengers and 
two lines are devoted entirely to passenger traffic. The trip is 
one of the most delightful in the world. 



THE “SOUTH AMERICAN.” 

(One of the Steamers of the Chicago, Duluth and Georgian Bay Steamship Company) 


Canals Lake an ^ river routes are greatly extended by sys¬ 
tems of canals. The Erie Canal, extending from 
Buffalo to Albany, N. Y., and connecting the Great Lakes with the 
Hudson River, was completed in 1825. It was the first great public 
work undertaken by the United States and its opening marked a 
new era in the industrial and commercial progress of the country. 
In 1913, the legislature of New York voted to combine the Erie 














146 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Canal with the Champlain, the Oswego, and the Cayuga and Seneca 
Canals and give the system the name, New York State Barge Canal; 
$100,000,000'was appropriated for enlarging the entire system, and 
the work was nearly completed in 1916. This canal provides the 
state with 790 miles of waterway broad enough and deep enough 
to carry 1500-ton barges. The construction of the Erie Canal gave 
New York its supremacy as a commercial center. 

The St. Mary’s Canal at Sault 
Ste. Marie, Mich., is the most 
important short canal in the world. 
It is about a mile long and pro¬ 
vides for a drop of about 20 feet, to 
enable vessels to pass around the 
rapids in the St. Mary’s River. 
The American locks are four in 
number, and are situated side by 
side. The two largest are 1350 
feet long, 80 feet wide and have 
34^ feet of water over the sill. 
The Poe lock, next in size, is 1000 
feet long and 100 feet wide and 
has 21 feet of water over the sill. The fourth lock is used for small 
boats. The lock on the Canadian side is a little larger than the 
Poe lock. 

About 25,000 vessels pass through these locks during a season, 
which is more than six times the number passing through the Suez 
Canal. The other canals connected with the lake routes are in 
Canada, but are so closely associated with the traffic of the United 
States, that they really belong to this system of water routes. 
These are the Welland Canal, which connects Lake Erie with 
Lake Ontario and passes around the falls in the Niagara River, and 
the system of canals around the rapids in the St. Lawrence. The 








COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


147 


combined length of these canals in the St. Lawrence is about 44 
miles, while the total length of the canals between Lake Superior 
and Montreal is about 70 miles. By their means ocean-going 
ships of small size and draft can pass from the lake ports to the 
Atlantic and return without difficulty. 



WHALEBACK COMING OUT OP THE POE LOCK AT SAULT STE. MARIE 
The power-house, containing the machinery for operating the locks, is on the left. 


A number of canals were constructed, connecting Lake Erie 
with the Wabash and Ohio Rivers, passing across the state of Ohio 
by way of Columbus and Cincinnati; but the numerous lines of rail¬ 
way now traversing that state have rendered them almost useless, 
except for the carrying of coal and ore. A canal around the falls 
in the Ohio at Louisville enables boats to pass around this obstruc¬ 
tion so that freight can be carried from Pittsburgh to the Mississippi 
without reloading. 









AN OCEAN LINER 




















ltSO^ Longitude 150° West from 120° Greenwich 90 




n c 

T I 
















































































































































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


149 


OCEAN ROUTES 


Another canal of some importance is that connecting Lake 
Champlain with the Hudson River. There are a few small canals in 
Pennsylvania, and the old Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in Maryland 
is still used for carrying coal, but aside from the Erie Canal, and 
those connected with the navigation of the St. Lawrence, most of 
these waterways have fallen into disuse. 

The Chicago Drainage Canal, extending from Chicago to the 
Illinois River at Joliet, though originally constructed for drainage 
purposes, is of such dimensions as to make it navigable for the 
largest lake steamers. By deepening the Illinois River at various 
points, and making the proper connection between it and the canal, 
a direct water route from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico can 
be secured, and it is probable that the government will undertake 
this work in the near future. 

The most important Atlantic routes extend 
from New York, Boston, and Philadelphia to 
the ports of Europe, and southward along the coast to some of the 
gulf ports, the West Indies and Central America. Vessels formerly 
going around Cape Horn to reach ports in the Pacific Ocean now 
go via the Panama Canal. These routes are marked on the map, 
and each should be carefully traced. Vessels going eastward take 
a northerly route and avail themselves of the Gulf Stream, escaping 
the trade winds which blow towards the west; while those vessels 
going westward, especially sailing vessels, follow the route which 
is in the path of the trade winds and receive what benefit they can 
from them on their voyage. However, the great ocean liners which 
make the highest speed between American and European ports, 
pay but little attention to either winds or currents, but follow the 
route which covers the shortest distance between ports. 

The Pacific routes lead from San Francisco and Seattle to the 
westward. These extend to the Hawaiian Islands, the Philippine 
Islands, and the ports of China and Japan, while the coastwise 


150 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


AN OCEAN LINER 


routes extend northward to Alaska and southeast to the ports on 
the Isthmus of Panama, and the coast of South America. The 
annexation of the Hawaiian Islands, the development of the 
Philippines, and our increasing trade with China and Japan are 
making the Pacific routes more important every year. (See page 
290.) 

One who has not crossed the Atlantic has 
little conception of the size and conven¬ 
iences of one of the great steamships that ply between European 
and American ports. For a number of years builders have been 
constructing very large ships for the steamship companies. One 
of these, the Mauretania, of the Cunard Line, is about 790 feet 
long. Were seven ships of this length placed end to end they 
would extend over a mile. The smokestacks are taller than the 
spires of many churches, and if laid in a horizontal position 
two railway trains could pass through them abreast on double 
tracks. 

When fully loaded the Mauretania displaces 46,000 tons of water, 
a quantity sufficient to fill a channel 30 feet wide, 6 feet deep and one 
and one-half miles long. She makes the trip between New York and 
Queenstown in a little less than five days. 

The three largest ships completed previous to 1916 were the 
lmperator, 909 feet long; the Vaterland, now the Leviathan, 950 feet, 
formerly of the Hamburg-American Line. The Leviathan is 100 feet 
wide, has a hold 65 feet deep, and engines of 80,000 horsepower. Her 
speed is 24 knots an hour, two knots less than that of the Mauretania 
of the Cunard Line. Over 1000 tons of coal are consumed daily in 
driving the engines of one of these great ships. These great ocean 
liners are in every respect floating palaces. They contain electric pas¬ 
senger and freight elevators, play-rooms for children, swimming-pools, 
and every luxury found in the finest hotels of Europe and the United 
States. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


151 


SHIP CANALS 


Canals are constructed to enable boats to pass 
around obstructions, like falls or rapids in a river, or 
to shorten distances between points. The Welland Canal in Ontario 
is a good illustration of those constructed for the first purpose. This 
canal overcomes the difficulty presented by Niagara Falls. The Kiel 
Canal, connecting the Baltic and North Seas is a good illustration of 
a canal constructed for the second purpose. Cape Cod Canal shortens 
the distance between Boston and New York and other southern ports 
by seventy miles. The Suez Canal connecting the Mediterranean 
and Red Seas is 100 miles long, 400 feet wide, at its surface and 31 feet 
deep. Its construction completely changed the ocean routes between 
Europe and the East. By passing through the Suez Canal, and the 
Red Sea, ships bound from European ports to India, China and Japan 
save over 4000 miles. 

The Panama Canal, opened for traffic in 1914, is the most im¬ 
portant ship canal in the world. It has shortened the distance by 
water between New York and San Francisco and other United States 


ports on the Pacific coast 7800 miles and the distance between New 
York and the Pacific ports of South America 4000 to 5000 miles. It 
has cut 5000 miles from the distance between Liverpool and the Pacific 
ports of South America and many ships formerly passing through the 
Strait of Magellan now make use of the Panama Canal. 

Of almost equal importance with the lines 
COMMUNICATION 0 £ transportation are the means of commu¬ 
nication by which business men are kept constantly informed of 
the industrial conditions and the state of the markets of the entire 
world. Without the telegraph and the telephone it would be 
impossible to operate our great railway and steamship lines upon 
present plans. Telegraph lines now traverse the entire country m 
all directions, and there is scarcely a hamlet which is not within 
easy reach of a telegraph office. In addition to this, ocean cables 
now cross the Atlantic and Pacific, so that it is possible to send a 


152 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


dispatch to any part of the world and receive a reply within a few 
hours' time, and wireless messages across oceans and continents are 
now common. Telephone lines extend from large cities to sur¬ 
rounding towns, and even to many rural communities, so that these 
places have a cheap and easy means of communication with the 
great centers of trade. 

In addition to these means of communication, the mails trans¬ 
mit promptly and cheaply letters, bills, receipts, drafts, and money 
orders, and what is of almost equal importance, numerous news¬ 
papers and trade journals, by means of which every business man 
can obtain reliable and very complete information of those lines of 
commerce in which he is interested. Besides, most localities are 
now favored with free rural delivery, by which means mail is brought 
daily to every resident along the route. 

QUESTIONS 

In what general direction did the earliest railroads in the United States 
extend? In what direction do the longest trunk lines now extend? 

What has made Chicago the largest railroad center in the world? 

In what way has the government aided in the construction of railroads? Has 
this aid been beneficial to the country? 

Why did the completion of the Erie Canal form the beginning of a new era 
in the commercial history of the United States? 

In what way does the government aid in transportation? 


Chapter XVI 


GREAT CITIES 

The early history of most of our large cities might 

LOCATION 1 -l + h • 1 +1 * n • 1 • • • 

lead one to think that their beginnings were acci- 

dental, and while it is difficult to say why some cities are located 

just where they are, it is, nevertheless, a well-recognized fact that 

the location of most was determined by geographical conditions. 

Some are dependent upon one set of conditions and others upon 

another. Among the most important of these are the following : 

Transportation by water is successful only when 

Good Harbors vesse i s h ave sa f e and convenient anchorage; 

consequently, those towns which were first built on enclosed arms 
of the sea, having a sufficient depth of water to admit the largest 
vessels, possessed great advantage in trade. Ships sought their 
ports and people from other towns and the surrounding country 
came to them to exchange commodities. This gave employment 
to a large number who must necessarily live near their work, 
and thus the city was started. One line of business attracted 
another and the city continued to grow. On the Atlantic coast, 
Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore are the best illus¬ 
trations of cities built on good harbors, and San Francisco and 
Seattle, on the Pacific, owe their prosperity to a similar cause. 

Many country towns began from 
Convenient Meeting Places apparently trivial causes 

were convenient stopping places at the end of a day’s journey, or 
where a road had to cross a river by a ford or a ferry. People 
could meet at such places more conveniently than at any other 
place in the vicinity, and trade sprang up. As the population 

153 




HARBOR, DULUTH 











COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


155 


increased, business was extended, requiring more people, and the 
settlement became a town. In certain localities, such towns often 
£rew into cities. A number of our small inland cities staited in 
this way. 


Many of the cities of the New England and the 
Water Power ^orth Atlantic Stales are built on sites where 
water power is abundant. Such are Lowell and Fall River in 
Massachusetts; Nashua, N. II., Troy, N. Y., and a number of 
towns on the fall line; while Minneapolis illustrates the same 
principle of location in the Mississippi Valley. 

In our early history, many military posts 
Military Stations were established at junction points and 

portages. These were found to be safe and convenient places for 
trading stations, and business was drawn to the localities where 
they were established. When the military was removed, the 
trading post remained and grew into a town and then to a city. 
Detroit, Chicago and St. Louis are illustrations of cities that began 
as military posts. 


Pittsburg owes its growth and prosperity to the pres¬ 
uming- ence coa j anc j [ vovli which made it a convenient and 

cheap manufacturing center. Added to this was its advantage of 
being at the head of navigation on the Ohio, which, before the 
extension of railroads into the interior of the country, gave it 
prestige as a trading center. Many cities in the coal legions of 
Pennsylvania, Leadville, Colo., Puttc, Mont., and a number of 

other thriving cities owe their growth to mining interests. 

A number of in- 

Meeting Places of Land and Water Routes land cities have 


grown up at convenient meeting places of land and water routes. 
Duluth affords the best connection for the railroads of Northern 
Minnesota and North Dakota with the steamers on the Great 
Lakes. While Buffalo affords an equally convenient place for 


156 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


such connection at the lower end of the lakes. Besides, the con¬ 
struction ot the Erie Canal early gave this city an important 
position as a place of trans-shipment of cargoes from lake vessels 
to the canal boats. Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee and Chicago 
each owe much of their prosperity to similar causes. Numerous 
lines of railway meet in each of these cities, and the traffic between 
them and the lake steamers is extensive. New Orleans is an 
important port for the trans-shipment of cargoes from the Missis¬ 
sippi steamers to ocean-going vessels and from these vessels to the 
river steamers. 

R .. r Some inland cities owe their prosperity to 

ai way en ers || ie f ac t, that they were located at a con¬ 
venient point for numerous railways to meet. Indianapolis, South 
Bend and Denver are good illustrations of such centers. 
q,, p There are a number of other causes which have led 

er auses to the building of cities at numerous points. St. 

p' 1 1 o n on the Mississippi, and Albany is 
similarly situated on the Hudson. New Orleans occupies a good 
site for a river port near the sea. The building of the Eads Bridge 
tianstoimed East St. Louis from a small town to an important city 
and railroad center. The construction of a bridge across the 
Missouri at Kansas City also contributed much to that city’s growth. 
The consolidation of manufacturers and other industries under great 
corporations that erect extensive factories also contributes to the 
growth of many cities, and causes the foundation of others. These 
plants require thousands of workmen, all of whom must live near 
theii woik, consequently houses are built near the factories, the 
wants of the people bring other industries and a town is soon 
established. 

PLAN OF A CITY While each city llas its own peculiarities of 

structure which are determined by its loca¬ 
tion, in their general plan all American cities are similar. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


157 


Outline ^he ou ^ ne °f a city * s determined almost entirely by 
its site. Boston occupies land surrounding a very 
irregular body of water, and has the most irregular outline of any 
large city in the country. New York originally occupied an island 
and conformed to its contour, and in its extension has kept its 
form intact, so that the city is an approximate rectangle, with its 
greatest length from north to south. Since the west side of the 
city is bounded by the Hudson, its outline is regular; but the exten¬ 
sion of the city eastward is greater in some places than in others 
and its eastern boundary is quite irregular. Philadelphia follows 
the Delaware and Schuylkill, which gives it quite a long extension 
on the west side. Chicago is a rectangle, with its greatest length 
on Lake Michigan, and inland cities, whose sites are not affected 
by bodies of water, are generally regular in outline. 

Plan a ^ rea ^ measure the streets of a city must conform to 
the shape of the site. Cities built upon an irregular site 
cannot have streets as regularly laid out as others; new cities are 
more regular than old ones. Philadelphia was the first American 
city whose streets were properly planned. They run at right 
angles and are so numbered that the number of any building at 
once tells its location. This is the proper method of laying out the 
streets and numbering the lots, and is pursued in all the newer 
cities of the country. 

The modern method of laying out a city is to run the streets 
at right angles, if possible; to name those running in one direction 
and number the cross streets. Usually an important street through 
the center of the city is taken as the line from which the numbers 
extend either north and south or east and west, as the case may be. 
The blocks are numbered by hundreds; all of the numbers in the 
first block running from one to one hundred; those in the second 
from two hundred to three hundred, and so on. By this method, 
one acquainted with the city can immediately tell the location of 


158 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


the building. Formerly the lots were numbered in regular order, 
from end to end of the street, without regard to the number of 
blocks. Unfortunately in some cities both methods of number¬ 
ing are in use, which makes it impossible to determine location by 
number. 

Every city is divided into a number of well defined portions, 
each of which is distinguished by some leading feature. Except in 
mining towns, the shipping portion is first determined upon. If 
the city is on a navigable body of water, this is where the most 
convenient and commodious harbor can be made. In large sea and 
lake ports it often extends for a long distance along the water front 
and where the city is at the mouth of a navigable river, the ship¬ 
ping portion may also extend along both banks for several miles, as 
in Chicago. If the city is a railway center, the shipping portion is 
in the locality where commodious railroad yards and freight houses 
can be most conveniently and economically erected. In large cities 
the industries often exert a strong influence in locating shipping 
portions, and instead of one there may be several. 

The manufacturing portion is always situated as near the ship¬ 
ping portion as possible, in order to save unnecessary expense in 
transportation. Cities having an extensive shipping business may 
have more than one shipping portion, but in such cases, industries 
of the same sort have a tendency to seek the same locality, there¬ 
fore we find furniture factories in one locality, boot and shoe fac¬ 
tories in another, and iron foundries and machine shops in a third. 

As near as possible to the shipping and manufacturing por¬ 
tions is the exchange, or “downtown” portion. This is usually the 
most important part of the city, and is divided into wholesale and 
retail districts, the former being near the shipping portion. Here, 
in addition to the wholesale and retail stores, we find the large 
office buildings and most of the public edifices, as the post-office, 
city hall, court-house and such other similar institutions as the city 



THE CUSTOM HOUSE, BOSTON 

(Photo copyright by H. A, Folsom) 































160 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


may contain. In some cities public libraries are located within the 
business portion while in others they are in more retired sections. 
Conveniently located to all business enterprises are found a number 
of banks, and sometimes a United States sub-treasury office. The 
buildings in the exchange portion are large, and, in such cities as 
New York and Chicago, very tall, some of them exceeding thirty 
stories in height. The streets are broad, and so paved as to enable 
them to withstand the heavy teaming. 

The residence portions are situated around the other portions 
of the city, and to be desirable should afford good drainage, plenty 
of sunlight and fresh air, and be interspersed with boulevards and 
parks. The portions vary widely in these respects, and each por¬ 
tion is sought by the class of people to whose means and tastes it 
is best suited. Some sections are occupied by those who have 
acquired great wealth. These sections are characterized by expen¬ 
sive residences, beautiful streets, and numerous parks; other sec¬ 
tions are occupied by people who, though in good circumstances, 
do not care to live in so expensive a style. In these sections are 
many large apartment houses divided into “ flats.” The portions 
occupied by the poorer classes are usually quite near, if not within, 
the manufacturing or exchange centers, and are densely crowded. 
In such cities as New York and Chicago various localities in the resi¬ 
dence portions are occupied wholly by people of foreign extraction 
who have emigrated to this country and still maintain the language 
and customs which they used in their fatherland. 

The transportation of the inhabitants to and from their places 
of business always has been a serious problem, and as the cities in¬ 
crease in size it becomes still more perplexing. All lines of rail¬ 
way which center in the large cities run local trains at intervals of 
a few minutes from the suburbs to their central stations. Street 
car lines lead from all parts of the city, and from many suburbs of 
the business portion, and in New York, Chicago, and a few other 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


161 


cities, these are supplemented by several lines of elevated railway. 
But during the morning and evening hours all means of transporta¬ 
tion are taxed to their utmost. The streets in the business center 
of every large city become very much overcrowded, and, in order 
to avoid this, Boston and New York have constructed underground 
railways, known as subways, which pass under the streets of the 
most crowded portions. In New York a subway system which can 
transport over 300,000 passengers a day has been completed, and 
this to (piite an extent relieves the overcrowding. 

Nearly every city has one or more parks open to the public as 
pleasure grounds. Such cities as New Tork, Chicago and St. 
Louis have several large parks located in different parts of the city 
and, in addition to these, numerous small ones so located that they 
enable the people of the most crowded portions to reach them with¬ 
out travelino - a long distance. The schools and churches are usually 
distributed throughout the residence portions, so as to accommo¬ 
date the people to the best advantage. 

There are a number of cities on the Atlantic 
SEAPORTS an( j p ac ifi c coasts that are important seaports. 

Among them are : 

Boston is the second port in importance on the Atlantic 
Boston seaboard. It has one of the best harbors in the country, 
though it is not as large as that of New York. Previous to the con¬ 
struction of the Erie Canal, Boston was the leading port of the coun- 
trv, but the opening of that waterway gave New York an advantage 
because it brought to it a large trade that before the construction 
of railways Boston could not reach. Nearly all of the export and 
import trade of New England is carried on through Boston and in 
addition to this, it receives for export a large amount of produce 
from the west. A number of important lines of railway center in 
the city, and each has good western connections. Its ocean routes 
lead to Liverpool, Glasgow, Hamburg and important seaports on 


162 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


the Mediterranean, while its coastwise trade is very extensive. 
Boston is one of the great financial centers of the country, and has 
contributed much of the capital used in establishing cities and in¬ 
dustries in the West. Its most important local industries are the 
manufacture of iron and steel goods, printing and publishing, sugar 



POST-OFFICE SQUARE, BOSTON 


refining and the manufacture of boots and shoes. It is also the 
first leather and wool market of the country. 

. Baltimore is situated near the head of Chesapeake 

altimore jkiy, 180 miles from the Atlantic. It has a fine 

harbor and carries on an extensive export trade. It is the great¬ 
est oyster market in the world, and the gathering, canning and 








COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


163 


shipping of oysters is one of its most important industries. It is 
also an important tobacco market and has extensive iron and steel 


works. It is one of the leading commercial centers. 

.. - . ,. Philadelphia is 100 miles from the ocean, but 
Philadelphia , _ / A 

the Delaware River, upon which it is situated, 

affords it a good harbor, and the depth of the river is such as to 
admit of its navigation by large ocean steamers, even at low tide. 
In the early history of the country this was a much more impor¬ 
tant commercial center than either New York or Baltimore, but 


its geographical position was not such as to enable it to maintain 
its supremacy after the construction of the Erie Canal and numer¬ 
ous lines of railway, which sought New York and Baltimore. Its 
principal exports are food stuffs, iron and steel, petroleum, coal, 
cotton, leather goods, and woolens. It is an important manufac¬ 
turing center and its industrial interests greatly exceed those of a 
commercial nature. It has extensive woolen mills and is the 
largest carpet manufacturing center in the world. While it is 
situated on several important lines of railway, they all pass through 
it and terminate in New York. 

^ n This is the great seaport for the Gulf of Mexico, 

ew r eans Philadelphia, it is situated on a river more 

than 100 miles from the sea. At one time, it was thought that 
New Orleans would become the leading commercial city of the 
country, but the construction of railways deprived the Mississippi 
of much of its importance as a commercial highway. The city’s 
most important trade is in cotton, of which it exports large quanti¬ 
ties to all of the cities on the Atlantic coast and to Europe. The 
commercial interests of New Orleans were greatly advanced by 
the improvement of the mouth of the Mississippi River under the 
direction of Capt. James B. Eads, who, by the means of jetties, 
caused the current to excavate a channel to a depth of thirty feet, 
thus allowing the largest ocean-going vessels to reach New Orleans 


164 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


without difficulty. The city is now developing an important trade 

with Mexico and the Central American states. 

♦ 

San Francisco ^is ^ as * ong keen mos ^ i m P° r t an t port on 

the Pacific coast. It is situated on one of the 



FERRY HOUSE, SAN FRANCISCO 

finest harbors in the world, which is deep enough to admit the 
largest vessels regardless of the ebb and flow of the tide. Its 
thriving commerce is carried on with the ports of China and Japan, 
and in addition to this it has a greatly increasing trade with Hawaii 
and the Philippine Islands. Its exports consist largely of wheat- 
flours, fruits, leather, wines, and meat products. Lines of steamers 
also connect it with most of the Pacific ports of South America, as 
well as all of the important coast towns of the Pacific States. 





















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


165 


Oakland, across San Francisco Bay, is the meeting place of several 
transcontinental lines of railway. 

Seattle Seattle, situated on Puget Sound, has an exceptional 
harbor, and is the terminus of several transcontinental 
lines of railway. It is rapidly developing into an important sea¬ 
port, and has lines of steamers making direct connection with the 
important cities of China and Japan, and in its trans-Pacific trade 
reaches eastward as far as Liverpool and London. It is also the 
headquarters for all the lines of steamers for Alaskan ports. The 
rapid growth of the business interests of this city during the last 
decade, has been remarkable, and it bids fair to become the most 
important commercial port of the Pacific coast. (For a view of the 
harbor, see page 42.) 

^ The commerce of the Great Lakes is carried on 

LAKu PG^TS between a num ber of cities that have attained 

their importance largely on account of this traffic. These are: 

Duluth, situated at the western extremity of Lake 
Superior, is at the head of the Great Lakes. Though a 
comparatively young city, it has assumed an important position in 
the commerce of the country. Extensive ore-docks and grain 
elevators, from which ore and grain are loaded upon the boats to 
be taken to ports on the lower lakes are located here. Duluth 
furnishes a natural lake port for the grain of Northern Minnesota 
and the Dakotas. Much of the coal and other heavy freight, which 
is shipped into these regions from the Eastern states, is also sent 
to Duluth by boat. 

This is a city of about 458,000 inhabitants, situated 
i wau ee ^ ^he wes ^ ern s bore of Lake Michigan, eighty-five 

miles north of Chicago. It has extensive manufactories, and the 
largest breweries in the country. Its lake traffic is, next to Chicago, 
the most important on Lake Michigan. Railroad ferries connect 
this city with Grand Haven and one or two other towns on 


Duluth 


166 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Detroit 


the eastern shore of the lake. It is also an important center for 
railways running through Wisconsin, and is in the midst of a 
thriving agricultural country. 

Situated on the Detroit River, this is not only the most 
important lake port between Chicago and Duluth and 
Buffalo, but is also the largest center for the manufacture of automo¬ 
biles in the United States, if not in the world. The centering of 
these and other manufacturing industries in and around Detroit 
has caused a rapid increase in the city's population, which, in 1916, 
was estimated at 572,000. More tonnage passes through the Detroit 
River than through any other inland body of water in the world. 

Cleveland Cleveland is one °f the most important cities of Ohio 
and the lake region. Situated on the southern shore 
of Lake Erie, it has an excellent natural harbor and is the center of 
the hardware and grain trade and coal and iron-ore shipping. The 
city also has a number of important manufactories, is a railway cen¬ 
ter and a convenient shipping port for much of the freight that 
finds its way from New York, but especially from Pennsylvania, to 
the ports on the upper lakes. A large portion of the iron-ore 
from the mines in Minnesota and Wisconsin is transferred from 
boats to cars at Cleveland. The Ohio Canal connects the city with 
the Ohio River and affords an important outlet to the Mississippi. 

Buffalo ^e i m P° r t ance of Buffalo at the foot of Lake Erie 
has already been mentioned. It has an extensive 
trade, and is the most convenient port for the trans-shipment of 
goods from lake steamers to the Erie Canal and to railways. The 
amount of freight brought down the lakes and re-shipped from this 
point gives employment to a large number of people. 

A few cities located upon the Mississippi and 
its tributaries are important river ports. 

St Louis ^is eity i s sillied on the west bank of the 
Mississippi just below its confluence with the Mis- 


RIVER PORTS 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


167 


souri. It is one of the largest and most important cities in the 
Union, and now has a population of more than 750,000, It is the 
great commercial center of the Mississippi Valley, and is the distrib¬ 
uting point for the territory lying to the south and southwest. Next 
to Chicago, it is the most important city in the interior. Lines of 
steamers -ply between St. Louis and New Orleans throughout the 
year, and during the summer months the traffic is extended to the 
northern river ports. It is a great grain and flour market; also 
handles large quantities of tobacco, cotton, cotton-seed oil, and sugar, 
and contains important glass works, breweries, flour mills, and 
car shops. The city is connected with East St. Louis by the cele¬ 
brated Eads Bridge, which is one of the most noted of its kind in 
the world. The erection of this bridge has caused numerous lines 
of railway to center in East St. Louis, which is a thriving and im¬ 
portant suburb, although in another state. The Louisiana Pur¬ 
chase Exposition, held in St. Louis in 1904, greatly increased the 
city’s business during the years of preparation for the Fair. 

St Paul ^is c ^y the head of navigation on the Mississippi, 
and is the great railway center of the Northwest. It 
has numerous factories, some flouring mills, and has become an im¬ 
portant wholesale and distributing point for the great states lying 
to the west. 


Kansas City city is on the Missouri River, and is a great 

railway center. Its river traffic is not as impor¬ 
tant as that of some cities of smaller size, but its geographical posi¬ 
tion is such as to make its railway connections far reaching. While 
contending against natural disadvantages, it has become one of the 
most important business centers in the central portion of the country. 
It has a large traffic in live-stock, and in meat-packing ranks next to 
Chicago. 


Cincinnati 


This is the most important city in the Ohio Valley, 
and carries on an extensive river traffic. The 


168 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Miami Canal gives it a water connection with Lake Erie, and it also 
is the center of a number of trunk lines of railway. It has important 
pork-packing establishments, and extensive manufactories, among 
them the largest soap factory in the country. 

Pittsburgh Situated at the junction of the Alleghany and Monon- 
gahela Rivers, Pittsburgh is practically at the head 
of navigation on the Ohio. Its position in the center of the coal 
and iron mines of the region has made it a city of great manufac¬ 
turing importance. It is also one of the largest shipping points 
for coal, iron and steel. The leading industries are the manu¬ 
facture of iron and steel, and glass. The presence of natural gas 
and its close proximity to the ore fields have enabled Pittsburgh to 
secure an abundance of the most suitable fuel for manufacturing 
purposes at comparatively little expense, and this advantage has 
contributed very much to its industrial development. 

QUESTIONS 

Why are there so few seaports on the Pacific coast? Account foi* their 
location. 

What has given Duluth its commercial importance? 

Why do similar industries locate near each other in a city? Why would it 
not be an advantage to have the wholesale and the retail establishments in the 
same locality? 

What has made Boston the most important city of New England? 

Why are there no great cities in Iowa, Nebraska or Kansas? 

What are the most important industries in each of the following cities: Balti¬ 
more, Buffalo, New Orleans, Minneapolis, Providence? 

W hat important cities in the United States have increased in population and 
wealth because of the building of bridges or canals near them? 


Chapter XVII 


NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 

New York and Chicago are our two most important commer¬ 
cial and financial centers, and in point of location, plan and other 
features, follow very closely the general plan of a city outlined in 
the last chapter. While it would be of interest to describe these 
cities fully, the purpose of this work will admit of a description of 
only their commercial and industrial features. 

NEW YORK 

LOCATION New Y° r k the largest city in America, and 
AND EXTENT a ^ er London, the largest in the world. It is 

located on New York Bay at the mouth of the 
Hudson. In its outline it is rectangular. Its greatest extent from 
north to south is about thirty-three miles, its greatest width about 
fourteen miles, its area is 327 square miles, and its population 
about 5,623,000. The western boundary follows the Hudson and 
the Channel to the west of Staten Island and is comparatively 
regular, but the eastern boundary is very irregular As now con¬ 
stituted, the city includes New York proper, Brooklyn, Long 
Island City, and Staten Island. For purposes of administration it 
is divided into five boroughs, as follows: Manhattan, Bronx, Queen, 
Brooklyn, and Richmond. Manhattan coincides with Manhattan 
Island and is the most densely populated, and contains most of the 
great financial and commercial establishments. 

The first settlements in New York were made on the 
southern end of Manhattan Island, where there were 
good facilities for constructing piers. This determined the 


169 



WOOLWORTH BUILDING, NEW YORK 

(Copyright, 1911, by F. W. Woolworth) 



































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


171 


shipping portion of the town, and the other portions are in the 
most convenient, adjacent localities. Good harbor facilities on 
Long Island caused the village of Brooklyn to be started there. 
The shipping portions of the city proper extend along both shores 
of the lower part of Manhattan, and along th« water front of 
Brooklyn. Manhattan alone has a water front of 123 miles, and 
the total frontage within the limits of Greater New York is 577 miles. 
There are also extensive docks on the west bank of the Hudson, 
at Jersey City, Hoboken, and Weehawken, New Jersey. Only a 
small portion of the frontage is occupied. 

The great business center is crowded into the southern part of 
Manhattan. Below Twenty-third Street are the great docks for 
ocean steamships, and back of them are the produce markets. 
The region along Broadway from Chambers to Tenth Street is 
devoted to the wholesale trade and west of Broadway below Canal 
Street lies the largest wholesale dry goods center in the country. 
Farther up Broadway is the retail shopping district. The princi¬ 
pal retail streets running north and south are Sixth Avenue and the 
Bowery, and those running east and west are Fourteenth, Twenty- 
third, and Forty-second streets. The exchange and banking dis¬ 
trict lies in the center of the lower half of Manhattan. Here are 
located the great banks and office buildings. The chief financial 
center Is on Wall and Board Streets. 

The exchange district contains more magnificent buildings than 
are found in any other equal area in the world. Chief among them 
are, the Woolworth Building, 55 stories high; the Singer Building, 
41 stories; the buildings of the Adams Express Company, the 
Standard Oil Company, the Manhattan Life Insurance Company, 
the new banking building of J. P. Morgan & Company, the United 
States Sub-treasury, and the Bankers’ Trust Building, which 
is 39 stories high. New York cannot extend the area of her ex¬ 
change district, so she has resorted to the device of tall buildings, 



THE MUNICIPAL BUILDING, WITH CITY HALL IN THE FOREGROUND, NEW YORK 












COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


173 


and all the modern structures in this part of the city are sky-scrapers, 
ranging from 22 to 40 stories in height. 

There are a number of manufacturing regions. Some are on 
the water front in Brooklyn where the great sugar refineries are 
located; some are in the Borough of Queens, and others are located 
outside of the city limits in Jersey City and Hoboken. The land 
adjoining the shipping portion on Manhattan has become too 
valuable for other purposes to admit of manufacturing in that 
part of the city. 

The residence portions are in the northern part of Manhattan 
and in Brooklyn, south and east of the shipping and manufacturing 
portions, and in the Borough of Queens. There are, also, many 
beautiful suburbs extending for miles up the Hudson, and others 
in New Jersey, beyond the business portion of Jersey City. 

The crowded condition o~ the business center 
TRANSPORTATION ^ New York compels the people who work 

there to reside some distance from the heart of the city, and the 
problem of transportation has always been one of great difficulty. 
Car lines are found on the principal streets running north and 
south, and on many of those running east and west. Elevated 
railways and subways extend from the lower part of Manhattan 
to all the principal parts of the city. Four bridges span East River 
and four tunnels have been excavated under it to accommodate 
railways and subways. Numerous ferries ply on the Hudson be¬ 
tween Manhattan and Jersey City, Hoboken and Weehawken, and 
on East River between Manhattan and Brooklyn. The Pennsyl¬ 
vania and the Hudson and Manhattan railways enter the city by 
means of tunnels under the Hudson. The x\ew Tork Cential lines 
enter the-city from the north. The Grand Central Passenger Sta¬ 
tion and the station of the Pennsylvania Railway are the finest 
structures of their kind in the world, and the tunnels undei the 
Hudson and East rivers constitute the most extensive enterprise 
of this sort yet attempted in America. 



SCENE ON THE WATER FRONT, NEW YORK 











COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


175 


MANUFACTURES 


New York is the port through which most of 
the emigrants pass, and many of them remain 
in the city, consequently its population contains people from many 
nationalities. For this reason, there is an abundance of 
cheap labor, and this is one of the important conditions which 
determine the variety and character of the city’s leading manufac¬ 
tures. New York is the largest manufacturing center in the coun¬ 
try, exceeding, by fifty per cent, the manufactures of any other 



THE NEW PENNSYLVANIA. R. R. TERMINAL STATION, NEW YORK. 


city in America. The manufactures are of great variety, almost 
everything wanted in a civilized country being made here. The 
most important industry is the manufacture of clothing, which 
amounts to over two hundred million dollars a year. A large part 
of this work is done in tenement houses by cheap labor, in a man¬ 
ner similar to that in European cities, from which many of the 
workmen came. Other leading industries are the refining of sugar, 
the manufacture of iron and steel wares, printing and publishing, 







CHICAGO MUNICIPAL PIER (Top View Shows the Outside and Bottom View the Inside) 





















Commerce and industry 


IT 


TRADE 


manufacturing malt liquors, various forms of tobacco and cigars, 
and the roasting and grinding of coffee. 

New York is the greatest commercial center of the 
Western Hemisphere. The Harbor has over a hundred 
square miles of anchorage, and nearly 4000 vessels engaged in 
foreign trade clear from the docks each year. The combined ton¬ 
nage of this trade exceeds eight million, which is only a little less 
than that of the foreign trade of London. The coastwise trade is 
even larger than the foreign, and the two combined make New 
York the largest seaport in the world. Fifty-five per cent of the 
imports and nearly three-fifths of the exports of the United States 
pass through this port. 

Steamship lines connect New York with all the important com¬ 
mercial cities of Europe and South America, and with some in Asia. 
The peculiar location of the city gives it great advantage in export 
trade and with the great grain states of the Miss'ssippi Valley, 
since, by means of the Great Lakes, Erie Canal, and Hudson River, 
freight can be transported from this section by water much more 
cheaply than by rail. The prestige as a commercial center, which 
New York acquired soon after the opening of the Erie Canal, also 
directed lines of railway to it, and its railway traffic has become 
very large. Besides this, New York is the location of the great 
stock market of the country, whose daily transactions are measured 
by millions of dollars. 


CHICAGO 

Chicago, next to New York, is the largest city 
of the country. It is situated on Lake Michi¬ 
gan and the Chicago River. The city is built 
upon a comparatively low and level tract of land, and extends along 
the lake front 26 miles from north to south. In width it varies 
from six to ten miles, and has an area of about 200 square miles. 


LOCATION 
AND EXTENT 


178 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


fHifAro Chicago is noted for its growth which has been more 
rapid than that of any other large city in the world. 
While other cities have had booms, the growth of Chicago has been 
continuous. Joliet and Marquette, who stopped there in 1673, were 
the first white men to visit the site. The first white settler, John 
Kinzie, arrived in 1804. The same year the United States government 
built Fort Dearborn. The fort was abandoned in 1812 after an Indian 
massacre, but it was rebuilt in 1816. 

In 1833 the town had 550 inhabitants. In 1840 the number had 
increased to 4,480. At the time of the great fire in 1870, the town 
had grown to a city of 300,000. By 1880 the city had passed the half¬ 
million mark; in 1890, just before the World’s Fair, the population 
exceeded 1,000,000; in 1910 it was 2,185,283, and in 1920, with a 
population of over 2,700,000, Chicago had become the fourth largest 
city in the world. 

The growth of Chicago has been due to her location at the head 
of the navigation on Lake Michigan, making the city a convenient 
distributing point, and to the development of the surrounding country 
and the great Northwest. 



WRIGLEY BUILDING, CHICAGO 





























180 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


named North, as North State Street and North Clark Street, while 
south of Madison they are named South, as South State Street, South 
Clark Street. Likewise streets extending east and west have the 
prefix East to those parts east of State Street, and the prefix West 
to those parts west of that street. The numbers run 800 to the 
mile; thus 800 North Clark Street would be one mile north of 
Madison Street. 

The shipping portion is on the Lake front near the river, and also 
extends up the river for some over two miles. Besides the wharves 
on both banks, numerous others are found on canals that lead from 
the river to coal docks and manufacturing establishments. Another 
series of docks is located at South Chicago, near the mouth of the 
Calumet River. The large railroad yards occupy several localities 
within the city limits, but are all connected by a belt line, so that 
freight reaching the city on any line can be transferred to any 
other without reloading. 

Chicago has several manufacturing centers, some being located 
in each portion of the city. Many factories are located on or near 
the river, or some of the canals. The great steel mills are in South 
Chicago near the Calumet. The stock yards, with the great meat¬ 
packing houses, are on the South Side, extending along Halsted 
Street, from Thirty-ninth to Forty-third Streets, and many light 
manufactories are located on the West Side. 

The exchange portion is in the northern end of the South Side, 
crowded largely between the River and the Lake front, and extend¬ 
ing southward as far as Roosevelt Road. Within this area are most 
of the wholesale and retail establishments, the Board of Trade Build¬ 
ing, the Federal Building, all of the large bank and office buildings, 
the Art Institute, the Public Library, the Masonic Temple, the 
great department stores, the Auditorium and other leading theatres. 
Some of these office buildings have 6000 occupants. Either in 
this section, or on the adjoining banks of the River, are the great- 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


181 


railway stations, seven in number. Market Street and Wells 
Street are largely given to the wholesale trade, and South Water 
Street is occupied by the produce markets, while most of the re¬ 
tail trade centers upon State Street and Wabash Avenue. La Salle 
Street corresponds to Broad and Wall Streets in New York, as the 
center of the leading financial institutions. 

The residence portions of the city are found in all three of 
its main divisions, being the largest on the South and West Sides. 
These residential portions of the city and adjoining suburbs are con¬ 
nected with the business portion by surface and elevated lines. 

The business section of Chicago is congested 
TRANSPORTATION and t p e pro blem of transporting the people 

to and from their places of residence is one that has always caused 
more or less difficulty. A number of the long streets extending 
north and south are occupied by street railways, and most of the 
important streets in the west division are similarly equipped. 
Three tunnels connect these railways with the business district. 
In addition to these, there are four lines of elevated railway which 
meet in a loop in the exchange portion, and afford excellent facili¬ 
ties for those living on or near their lines. They extend to each 
division of the city- There are as yet no subways for passengers, 
though a system of tunnels for carrying freight is in operation. 
During the morning and evening hours all transportation lines are 
badly crowded. 

The location of Chicago for manufacturing 
MANUFACTURES purposes is very favorable. Her transpor¬ 
tation facilities are unequalled, and her proximity to the coal fields 
of Illinois make fuel abundant and cheap. For this reason, exten¬ 
sive steel works have been located at South Chicago. The great 
packing houses, which were described in Chapter IV,aie located in 
the southern portion of the west division. The great harvester 
works of the McCormick and Deering Harvest r Companies, now 


182 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


TRADE 


consolidated under the name of the International Harvester Com¬ 
pany, are also located in the city. Large furniture factories, piano 
factories, boot and shoe factories, machine shops, soap factories, 
and numerous other industrial institutions are also found in vari¬ 
ous parts of the city. The manufacture of clothing is an important 
industry, the output amounting to about $101,000,000 a year. 
As in New York, much of this work is done in homes by people 
who have emigrated from the old countries. 

Chicago is the distributing center for the vast territory 
lying to the west and northwest. Her situation on 
Lake Michigan gives her water communication with the Great 
Lakes and, through the system of canals on the St. Lawrence, with 
the Atlantic Ocean. The central location of the city, combined 
with its facilities for lake transportation, have made it the great¬ 
est railway center in the world Railroads whose aggregate mile¬ 
age exceeds 120,000 miles, or more than two-thirds of that in the 
entire United States, center in Chicago, and the freight and passen¬ 
ger traffic in the city is enormous. The harbor is along the Chicago 
and Calumet Rivers, which have been broadened and deepened for 
this purpose. The Chicago River has been improved by extending 
its mouth into the lake and the lake front has, in addition to this, 
government breakwaters nearly two miles in length. Ships can 
pass up the Chicago River for a long distance, and many branch 
channels, called slips, have been excavated so as to enable them to 
reach coal docks and large manufacturing establishments located in 
various parts of the city. The completion of a large municipal 
pier on the lake front, north of the river, has greatly increased the 
shipping facilities 

The greatest export trade in Chicago consists of grain, flour, 
dressed meat, and livestock, while her principal import is lumber, 
the city being one of the largest lumber markets in the world. 
This is due to the fact that lumber can be brought to this point 



STATE AND MADISON STREETS, CHICAGO 









































184 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


on the lakes much more cheaply than it can be transported by 
rail, and from here it is distributed over the various lines of railway 
to the different parts of the country. Chicago is the greatest wheat 
and produce market in the country, and large quantities of grain 
are received and distributed to other centers. Manufactures, 
including clothing, machines, pianos and organs, and many other 
articles, are also exported in large quantities. A characteristic 
feature of the retail trade is the existence of a number of large 
department stores, which seem to have reached perfection of de¬ 
velopment in this city, that of Marshall Field & Company being 
the largest retail store in the world. 

QUESTIONS 

Why is the population in certain parts of New York so dense? Is this true 
of any other American city? 

What causes have made New York such an important manufacturing center? 

Why is the commerce of New York greater than that of Boston? W T hy does 
not Philadelphia have an equally large trade? 

What are the reasons for Chicago’s location? W 7 hat causes have contributed 
to the city’s rapid growth? 

Why is Chicago a more important railroad center than either New York or 
St. Louis? 

How does the trade of Chicago differ in character from that of New York? 
What is the reason for this difference? 

What makes Chicago an important manufacturing center? 


Chapter XVIII 


EXCHANGE 

We have already learned that men first began to trade 

MONEY ^ ° 

by exchanging their products with each other. While 

the number of products were limited and the wants were few, 
transactions of this sort were possible, but with the increase in the 
number of wants and also in the number of commodities this sort 
of trading became impracticable. The shoemaker could not well 
go around to the tailor, the farmer and the miller to dispose of his 
shoes for what each of them produced, and it became necessary for 
men to have some article which could be used as a uniform medium 
of exchange. Such an article is known as money. Money is not 
an institution of civilization, for since the remotest time, barbarians 
and partially civilized people have used something as a medium of 
exchange. The Indians used wampum ; the tribes of the desert 
regions in the interior of Africa use salt; the Japanese and Chinese 
formerly used tea ; the Romans used iron ; and the early settlers in 
Virginia used tobacco as a currency. 

In order that any medium may be used for money, it must be 
something that everyone is willing to receive in exchange for what 
he has to sell. It must have a fixed value; it needs to comprise 
the value within a comparatively small space, and it must be 
capable of receiving and retaining stamps which show its valuation. 
Of all the mediums that have been used for money, gold and silver 
meet these requirements more nearly than all other materials com¬ 
bined. Paper money is used by the United States and many other 
nations, but it is of value only so fill* as it represents gold and 
silver, for which it may be exchanged at par on the desire of the 


185 


186 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


bolder. The paper money of the United States and of Great 
Britain is exchangeable at par in all civilized countries. This is 
because it represents gold. 

The money of the United States consists of gold and silver 
coins, nickel and copper coins, United States treasury notes, gold 
certificates and silver certificates, both of which are issued by the 



A UNITED STATES MINT 

general Government, and of the notes issued by the national banks. 
All ot these issues of paper money are protected by specie or 
bonds, in the possession of the treasurer of the United States. 
For this reason they never fluctuate in value and are in more 
general use than the gold and silver which they represent, because 
they are more convenient to handle and carry. 

A bank is an institution for receiving money and 


BANKS 


granting loans. If it is a national bank, it also has the 













COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


187 


Authority to issue paper money to the value of a certain amount of 
its stock. Banks aid business in the following ways : 

First. They serve as safe places in which to deposit money. 
This is necessary, as but few business men have places where they 
can keep on hand a sufficient amount of money to transact their 
business without incurring great risk of loss through robbery 
or tire. 

Second. They cause more money to be used than would 
otherwise be possible. Many people who deposit money in the 
bank do not have a sufficient amount over and above their needs 
to admit of loaning it, but when many small amounts are gathered 
through these deposits, the bank can loan them in large sums. In 
this way the bank makes useful money that without such an oppor¬ 
tunity would lie idle. 

Third. Banks enable many payments to be made without the 
direct use of money. If A buys of B merchandise to the amount 
of $100, and both A and B deposit their money in the same bank, 
A, by writing an order on the bank to pay B $100, causes that 
amount to be charged to his account and credited to B on the 
books of the bank. The debt is paid, and no money has been 
handled. This may be equally true if A lives in Chicago and B 
in New York. That is, A may obtain from his bank in Chicago 
an order on some bank in New York to pay B the desired amount. 
B deposits this order in the bank where he does business, and the 
amount is placed to his credit. Again no money has been handled, 
but the debt is paid. If signed by the depositor, the order is 
called a check ; when made by one bank on another and signed by 
the cashier or other officer, it is called a draft. Drafts are gener¬ 
ally used in making remittances to people at a distance. 

Banks receive on deposit the checks, 
THE CLEARING HOUSE drafts anc ] money offered by their de¬ 
positors. These may be on the bank in which the deposit is made. 


188 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


or on a number of other banks, either in the depositor’s city or in 
other cities. The depositor is given credit for the amount which 
his various checks and drafts represent, and the bank makes 
settlement with the other banks on which these papers are drawn. 
In small towns, banks exchange checks with each other and 
balance their accounts at frequent intervals, if not daily ; but in 
large cities, where there are numerous banks, such a method of 
procedure would require a great deal of time and labor. To avoid 
this, a clearing house is established. 

The clearing house is an.association of banks which combine, 
under regulations that they agree upon, for the purpose of 
exchanging checks and balancing their accounts with each other 
daily. The clearing house is in charge of a manager. Each 
bank represented has a desk at which a clerk is stationed. At a 
certain hour in the day — as ten o’clock in the morning—a clerk 
from each bank appears at the clearing house with checks which 
that bank has received upon the other banks in the association. 
These are in separate packages so that the amount which each 
bank owed to the others is quickly ascertained by the manager. 
After these packages have been examined, they are distributed to 
the different clerks. Then the clerks from the various banks pass 
from desk to desk and exchange checks. If a balance is due, the 
amount is noted, and it is made payable through the clearing house. 
In this way all the accounts are checked and balanced in a few 
minutes, and a great amount of labor and inconvenience is saved. 

In addition to this, the banks in the association have uniform 
regulations in regard to accepting and paying checks. These 
regulations are to them a protection against fraudulent trans¬ 
actions. There are now some sixty-four clearing houses in the 
United States. The largest is located in New York, and its trans¬ 
actions are several times the amount of those in any other city; 
the next largest is in Chicago. 

C O 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


189 


The question may arise: How can banks 

Bank Earnings a ff or( j to receive money and cash checks for 

*/ 

their depositors ? The banks receive their revenue from the loans 
which they make. A much larger amount of money is usually 
deposited than is required to meet the transactions as they occur, 
from day to day. The law providing for the establishment of 
banks requires that, in addition to the amount needed for daily 
use, a certain proportion of the deposits be kept as a reserve fund. 
All funds over these amounts the bank is allowed to loan on 
proper security. The interest which it derives from these loans 
constitutes the revenue it receives for transacting the depositors’ 
business, and the pay is usually ample. 

Many lines of business require such a large 
amount of capital that people are seldom found 
with sufficient means to carry them on singly. The construction 
and operation of great lines of railway, the building of ships and 
the erection of iron-mills and large factories are good illustrations 
of such lines of business. In order to secure the necessary capital, 
corporations are usually formed. A corporation consists of a num¬ 
ber of individuals who associate themselves together for a definite 


CORPORATIONS 


business purpose, and obtain from some state a charter, which is a 
contract binding them to certain agreements and restricting them 
to the lines of business stated in its terms. When such a corpora¬ 
tion is organized it can obtain money by selling shares in the busi¬ 
ness. These are known as stocks , and are usually sold in shares 
of one hundred dollars or fifty dollars. When sold at the rate ot 
dollar for dollar, stocks are at par; if sold for less than their face, 
they are at discount; if for more, at a premium. 

There are two kinds of stock, both of which are often issued 
by corporations. They are known as common and preferred stock. 
The preferred stock is that upon which a certain rate of interest is 
guaranteed regardless of the earnings ot the corporation, and the 


190 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


common stock is not subject to interest, but its holders receive 
their share of any dividends that the corporation may earn. The 
isssuing of stock is a strictly proper and legal business, so long as 
the amount issued does not exceed the actual amount paid in; but 
the great danger in these corporations is that they will issue many 



UNITED STATES SUB-TREASURY, NEW YORK 


more shares of stock than the capital of the corporation warrants. 
All stock over the amount represented by the actual capital is 
called "watered stock,” and its issuance often leads to financial 
embarrassment. 

Corporations in need of money for establishing a 
business or for its enlargement, often secure it by 


BONDS 











COMMERCE AttD INDUSTRY 


191 


issuing bonds instead of selling their stock. Bonds are usua 
considered the safer investment for the party making the loan, as 
they are a mortgage on the property, and if the principal and 
interest are not paid, the holder of the bonds has the right to pro¬ 
ceed against the company. Most of the loans made by railroad 
corporations are secured in this way, and large manufacturing con¬ 
cerns often secure their creditors in a similar manner. 

The corporation is usually managed by a few people who are 
elected as officers. These consist of a president, secretary and 
treasurer, and there may be several vice-presidents. The ordinary 
Stockholders seldom have any voice in the management of the con¬ 
cern, and must run the risk of obtaining a dividend on their invest¬ 
ment, or of being able to dispose of their stock at as favorable a 
price as they obtained it, should they desire to transfer their invest¬ 
ment to some other enterprise. 

Many stocks and bonds are valuable 

THE STOCK EXCHANGE se( J itieS) and are 80Ught by those who 

have money to invest. For this reason, there are those in all large 
cities who make a business of buying and selling these securities 
on commission. Such men are known as stock brokers. In most 
of these cities there is some place where at a certain hour of the 
day, stocks and bonds are publicly offered for sale. In the United 
States such places are known as the Stock Exchange. The leading 
stock exchange of the United States is in New York. It fixes the 
market price of securities for the entire United States, and trans¬ 
acts more business than all of the other stock exchanges of the 
country combined. It is located on Wall Street and has attained 
a world wide reputation. 

Wheat, corn and other grains, are bought 
BOARDS OF TRADE anc i go jj * n a manner similar to that em¬ 
ployed in the buying and selling of stocks. In cities having large 
transactions in produce, boards of trade are organized. Members 


192 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


buy and sell these commodities on commission, and for their own 
profit. Much of this buying and selling in Chicago and a few 
other large cities, is at public sale. The largest board of trade is 
in Chicago and it has a similar influence on the prices of produce 
that the Stock Exchange of New York has upon the prices of 
stocks and bonds. Its transactions amount to many millions of 
dollars a year. 

In boards of trade and stock exchanges there are always two 
parties; those who wish to sell, and those who wish to buy. The 
first party naturally endeavors to keep the prices as high as possi¬ 
ble, and to use every opportunity to raise them. For this reason 
they are known as the " bulls.” While those who wish to buy, as 
naturally endeavor to keep the prices as low as possible and to seek 
every opportunity to bring them lower. These are called the 
"bears.” Both of these terms are in common use in connection 
with the public sale of commodities. To "bear” stock or grain, 
means to attempt to reduce the price ; while to " bull ” stock or 
grain means to attempt to raise the price. However strange these 
terms may seem to one unacquainted with them, a brief explana¬ 
tion shows that they are very appropriate. The bull tosses things 
with his horns, while the bear pulls them down with his claws. 

To the observer who is unacquainted with the method of these 
organizations, the scene in the Stock Exchange or Board of Trade 
when business is at its height, is one of the wildest confusion. It 
would seem that all the men present are shouting at the same time, 
and each one in a different language. Yet there is order and system 
in it all, and those who transact the business understand each 
other thoroughly, so that mistakes seldom occur. Transactions 
extending into millions of dollars are made in the shortest possible 
time, and no one who is a member of the organization can retract 
from an offer that he has made or accepted. Unfortunately some 
of the transactions partake of a fraudulent nature, as they are 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


193 


MAKING REMITTANCES 


based upon what are known as "futures,” which simply means that 
the buyer and seller are both engaged in transferring commodities 
which do not exist. However, transactions ot this nature form a 
very small part of the business done. 

Means of transmitting money safely 
are necessary to the transaction of 
business between parties living at a distance. M hen one has 
access to a bank money can be safely transmitted by means of a 
bank draft. The draft is made payable to the person to whom the 
debt is due, and can not be collected until endorsed by that per¬ 
son or firm. Therefore it is of no value to one finding or stealing 
it. Its loss would cause inconvenience, but not actual loss to the 
sender. 

For those who are so situated that they do not have ready 


access to banks, the United States mails afford safe means of send¬ 
ing money. These are by registered letter and by postal order. 
In sending by registered letter, the money is placed in the letter 
and the registering fee is paid by placing the necessary stamp on 
the letter in addition to the regular postage. For this tee the 
government keeps a record of the letter every time it changes 
hands on its journey ; also prepares a receipt addressed to the 
sender, arid which must be signed by the person to whom the 
letter is addressed when it is delivered. This receipt is then 
returned to the sender who is thus notified of the receipt of the 
money by the proper party. In registering a letter the govern¬ 
ment agrees to keep a record of its transmission through the mails 
and to insure its delivery to the party to whom it is addressed. 
But the government does not guarantee the sender against loss by 
theft or the destruction of the letter by accident, hence the legis- 
tered letter is not the safest method of transmitting money. 

In sending money by postal order, the order is purchased at the 
home office the same as a bank draft. It is issued in duplicate 


194 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


and made payable to the party to whom the debt is due. One 
copy is placed in the letter addressed to the person who is to 
receive the money, and the other is sent by the postmaster to the 
postmaster in the town where the money is to be paid. When the 
holder presents his order at the post-office and properly indorses 
it, he receives his money. By this means only the order is sent 
through the mails, and the risk of loss is very slight. Express 
companies also issue similar orders that are equally safe. 

One should never send money through the mails in an 
unregistered letter, since in so doing one runs great risk of losing 
the remittance. 

QUESTIONS 

Why did the Aztecs and Incas not use gold and silver for money, 
since they had an abundance of these metals? 

Why are gold and silver the most suitable metals for money among 
civilized nations? 

How does a bank aid the industries of a locality? 

What is a clearing house? Of what advantage are clearing houses 
in large cities? 

Are there are any corporations in your locality? In what business 
are they engaged? 

What is the difference between a Board of Trade and a Stock Ex¬ 
change ? 


Chapter XIX 

TRADE BETWEEN THE STATES 

Trade with other countries is styled foreign commerce, and 
that within a country, domestic commerce. We have already seen 
that commerce depends upon the adaptation of each locality to 
some special line of industry, and upon the taste of individuals in 
choosing an occupation. When to this we add good facilities for 
transportation and a sound money system upon which to base 
credit, the conditions for a large commerce are nearly perfect. In 
the United States we find these conditions more fully met than in 
any other country. 

_ - _ . _ __Our great extent of territory embraces 

LOCAL INDUSTRIES ... c 

many regions, which, on account of dif¬ 
ference in soil, climate and natural resources, are as distinctly 
separated, industrially, as though they were under different 
governments. Furthermore, such regions as the cotton belt, the 
corn belt and the bituminous coal fields are each larger than the 
country occupied by any of such great powers as France, Germany 
or Italy. All of these regions sustain a thriving population, 
whose wants are supplied by exchanging their products for those 
of other regions. 

In no other country do the inhabitants include 

INDIVIDUALITY , • f c . um w , 

such a variety ot people. The population of 

the United States comprises representatives of all civilized nations, 
and these, with the native Americans, have developed into a 
people whose variety of tastes, range of occupations and indepen¬ 
dence in thought and deed have never been equalled. These 
conditions have led to a variety of occupations and created a 
multiplicity of wants. 


195 


196 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


TRANSPORTATION 
AND CREDIT 


In railways, steamships, lakes, rivers and 
sea, we do not lack, and nearly every 
inhabitant is on or near one of these means 
of communication, though some are greatly embarrassed in trans¬ 
porting their produce, on account of the lack of good roads. Of 
money we have an ample supply, our system of credit is sound, 
and all these conditions have combined to build up a domestic 
commerce such as no other country maintains. 

The movement of a commodity depends upon 
where it is produced, where it is needed, and 
the distribution of population. The older 
states are the most densely populated, and although the center of 
population has been moving westward for more than one hundred 
years. In 1920 it was at White Hall, eight miles west of Bloomington, 
Indiana. The population of the agricultural regions is less dense than 
that of the manufacturing regions, and that of the mining regions is 
generally less than that of the agricultural regions. This distri¬ 
bution of population is an important factor in our commercial 
life. 


MOVEMENT OF 
COMMODITIES 


Grain nor thern half of the Mississippi Valley and the 

Pacific Slope are the great granaries of the country. 
From the first region the movement of wheat and corn is eastward 
to the great centers of trade and manufacture, Chicago, Buffalo, 
Cleveland, New York, Boston, and other eastern cities receiving 
large supplies, either for local consumption or for trans-shipment. 
The grain of the Pacific States has a northern or southern move¬ 
ment, or is exported and goes westward to the Orient. 

Cotton Considerable of the cotton raised in the Southern 
States is now manufactured in the states where it is 
grown. However, this constitutes only a small part of the crop. 
Most of the product is sent northward, either for use in the mills 
of New England or for trans-shipment to Europe. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


197 


Live Stock follows the same lines as grain. It is raised 
ive oc or fattened in the grain-producing states, whence it finds 
its way to the densely populated states and cities, supplying them with 
meat. Less live stock than formerly is raised in the Rocky Mountain 
States. With few exceptions, practically all the meat in the country 
is produced in the great states in the Mississippi Valley, and is pre¬ 
pared for market in the packing market in the packing houses at Chi¬ 
cago, Omaha, Kansas City, and St. Paul. 

M „ , The manufacturing centers send their wares 

iTianui actures r i • i i 

to all regions from which they receive produce, 

or raw material. New England, the North Atlantic States, and 
those between the North Atlantic and the Mississippi River com¬ 
prise the great manufacturing region of the country. There are 
large manufacturing establishments in Minneapolis, St. Paul, St. 
Louis, and some other cities. West of the Mississippi River manu¬ 
facturing is not as general as farther east. Consequently all 
the vast area between the river and the Pacific Coast must be 
partially supplied by the manufactures from the eastern half of the 
country. And what is true of the West is equally true of the : 
South. 


Manufactures, then, in general, move west and south, and in 
addition to these general movements, there are those of a purely 
local character which increase the exchange of commodities between 
neighboring cities having different industries. This branch of trade 
is also increased by individual taste, as some people prefer goods 
from one city and some from another, and in order that the wants 
of all may be supplied, quite a complex exchange of commodities 

is necessary. 


l F 1 Coal and petroleum are in constant demand, and 
inera ue s movemen t to all parts of the country, 

though each section, as far as possible, is supplied with coal from its 
nearest sources, as the expense of freight on this commodity is gieat. 


198 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Ore movement of ore is always to the place where it will 
be milled or smelted. Iron ore seeks the coal regions 
because it requires a large amount of fuel. Copper ore is reduced 
at or near the mines, because the transportation of the ore is more 
expensive than the cost of the fuel required to smelt it. The ores 
of gold, silver, and lead, which are usually reduced by combined 
mechanical and chemical action, are milled at or near the mines, 
and the metal is shipped to the points where it is desired. In 
general, the movement of these metals is eastward. 

Iron and Steel ^ ron an< ^ s ^ ee ^ are use< ^ P ar ^s of the coun¬ 
try, and are shipped from the nearest steel 

mills to the desired localities. The Illinois mills supply most 
of the demand of the West and Northwest, but those of Penn¬ 
sylvania and Ohio supply the East and South and the foreign 
trade. 


COASTWISE TRADE 


Besides the movements described, there 


is one of great importance on both the 
Atlantic and the Pacific coast. This is the interchange of commod¬ 
ities between seaports of these respective localities. On the At¬ 
lantic and Gulf coasts this trade employs numerous lines of steam¬ 
ships plying on Long Island Sound and between Boston and New 
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, Savannah, Jacksonville, 
New Orleans, Galveston, and a number of other less important sea¬ 
ports. On the Pacific similar lines ply between San Francisco, 
Seattle, Portland, and Tacoma and Vancouver, British Columbia, 
and also between San Francisco and the ports to the south, prin¬ 
cipally San Diego and the port of Los Angeles. 

The United States has the largest coastwise trade in the world. 
Its combined tonnage exceeds 3,120,000 tons, four-fifths of which 
belong to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. This trade is by law re¬ 
served to vessels under the American flag, and the only compe¬ 
tition that is offered these lines is that given by the railways. The 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


199 


river, lake, and railway traffic has already been described in the 
chapter on trade routes. 

Complete statistics of domestic commerce are not obtainable, 
as no record is required of goods not exported or imported, and its 
extent can only be estimated by the labor and capital required to 
carry it on. In addition to the ocean going vessels engaged in 
coastwise traffic, more than 4000 vessels are employed on the 
20,000 miles of inland water, lakes, and rivers. The railway trans¬ 
portation requires 253,000 miles of railroad lines, which is about 
one-third of the mileage of the world, thus involving a capital of 
fifteen billions of dollars, a sum four times greater than the amount 
of circulating money in the United States. These railway systems 
earn yearly the enormous sum of $6,225,403,000, which is more 
than three times the annual revenue of the national government in 
times of peace. The domestic commerce of the United States ex¬ 
ceeds that of any other country. 

This remarkable development of our com¬ 
merce is associated with other great move¬ 
ments which are constantly affecting our industrial and social life. 
One of the most important of these is the gathering of the people 
into cities. Large cities are, year by year, adding to their num¬ 
ber of inhabitants, and small cities are becoming more numerous. 
In 1790 only 3.35 per cent of the population dwelt in cities of 
8000 or more inhabitants; in 1840 the proportion was 8.52 per 
cent; in 1890 it was 29.20 per cent; in 1900 it was 33.35 per cent, 
or a little more than one-third of the entire population of the country; 
and in 1910 it was 34.9 per cent. In 1920 it exceeded 50 per cent. 

The next important movement is that of immi¬ 
gration. The constant influx of foreigners is 
so great that it is affecting our social and political institutions, 
as well as increasing our opportunities for commerce and industry. 
The more we study our inland trade the more thoroughly are we 


GROWTH OF CITIES 


IMMIGRATION 


200 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


led to understand that the domestic commerce of the country is 
intimately related to every phase of our national life. 

QUESTIONS 

Why has the United States so large a domestic commerce? 

Why is such a large proportion of the produce of the agricultural regions taken 
to the cities? What do the cities send to the country in return? 

What products are shipped in all directions from their sources of supply? 

Why do the manufactures of the Eastern States find a market in the West 
and the South? 


Chapter XX 


ALASKA AND OUR ISLAND POSSESSIONS 


ALASKA ^ as ^ a ^ as an area 600,000 square miles, nearly all of 
which is on or within the Arctic Circle, but owing to 
the warm current in the Pacific, those portions near the coast haW^i 
much milder climate than the latitude of the country would feaidqus 
to anticipate. The interior is broken and, in many placbsyattionft- 
tainous. Streams traverse the valleys and, south of the"* the 

hillsides and most of the lowlands are covered with a heavy gro<wt^ 
of forests. Though the trees are not so large as those found in the 
forests of Michigan and Wisconsin, or Oregon and Washington, yet a 
large proportion are suitable for merchantable lumber, and lumber 
is now cut and sold in paying quantities, the sales in 1921 amounting 
to over $1,223,000. 


The hardier grains and vegetables are grown successfully as far 
north as the Yukon River, and the number of farms and gardens is 
increasing from year to year. Good breeds of cattle have been intro¬ 
duced, and the reindeer, introduced into the territory by the United 
States government in 1889, are of great benefit to the natives. Fox farm¬ 
ing is practiced to some extent, but mining and the fisheries constitute 
the chief industries. In 1920, the largest towns were Juneau, the capi¬ 
tal, 3058; Ketchikan, 2458; Anchorage, 1856; Sitka, 1175; Fairbanks, 


1155; Condora, 955; and Douglas, 919. When the mining excitement on 
Seward Peninsula was at its height, Nome was a city of 25,000 in¬ 
habitants, with the modern conveniences of a city of its size in the 
older States. In 1920 it had only 852 inhabitants. 


201 


202 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Alaska abounds in mineral wealth. Gold was discovered near 
Nome City on Seward Peninsula in 1898, and since that date large 
gold fields have been developed along the Yukon River and in the 
southeastern part of the territory. The output for 1920 was valued 
at $8,535,700, and the value of all the gold mined in Alaska since its 
discovery there exceeds $261,000,000. Since 1915, the mining of cop¬ 
per has developed rapidly and the value of the output now exceeds 
that of gold, the copper mined in 1920 being valued at $10,658,700. 
Large coal fields have been discovered, and Alaska coal mines now 
supply local demands for this fuel. In 1904 marble quarries were 
opened near Prince of Wales Island, and they are furnishing some of 
the finest marble quarried in America. Salmon canning is carried 
on chiefly on and about Kadiac Island. This industry is one of the 
most valuable in the territory. 

Regular lines of steamers ply between all Alaskan ports and 
Seattle and other cities on Puget Sound during the months when 
navigation is open, and the United States has established a regular 
mail service, so that, except during the most severe winter months, all 
citizens receive mail at regular intervals. Telegraphic communica¬ 
tion by way of Dawson is now open to nearly all points in the 
territory. The population is about 60,000, and the government is 
that of an organized territory, the governor and judges of the courts 
being appointed by the President of the United States, and the ter¬ 
ritorial officers appointing the minor local officials. The United 
States mining and land laws have been extended to the territory, and 
there is every prospect of a rapid increase in settlement. About 400 
miles of railway are in operation. 

PORTO RICO ^ anc ^ one ^he mos ^ important of the West 

India group, was acquired from Spain in 1898. 
It is a little smaller than Connecticut, having an area of 3600 
square miles, and a population of about 1,216,000. It is more 
densely populated than any state except Massachusetts and Rhode 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


203 


Island. About one-third of the inhabitants are negroes and mu- 
lattoes. The better class are Spanish creoles, who live in the 
towns and control the industries and business affairs of the island. 
About three quarters of the population is rural. 

Near the coast the land is low, but it rises as we go into the 
interior, where it becomes hilly and in places, even mountainous. 
The island is within the belt of the trade winds, and the northern 
part is abundantly watered, consequently the rivers in this part of 
the island afford acceptable harbors, and render important assist¬ 
ance to commerce. 

Most of the island is divided into small farms, all of which are 
tilled by their owners. On the low slopes and the plains fruit 
farming is the leading industry; but coffee, tobacco, corn, and 
mountain rice are grown, and coffee has become an important 
article of export. In the interior cattle are raised on the hill farms, 
and the largest tobacco plantations are found on the narrow alluvial 
plains. The principal cities are San Juan, the capital, having a 
population of 48,700; Ponce, 35,000, and Mayaguez, 17,000. San 
Juan is 1411 miles from New York, with which it maintains regular 
communication by steamer. 

Labor is cheap, and the establishment of manufacturing indus¬ 
tries would be a great benefit to the people, as it would enable 
them to obtain better support than is possible under present con¬ 
ditions. Many of the native plants are suitable for textiles and 
cordage, and these could be manufactured with profit. The 
annual trade with the United States amounts to about $97,000,000. 
Two-thirds of this amount consists in mports from this country 
and the balance in exports. The chief exports are sugar, coffee, 
pineapples, and other fruits, tobacco, molasses, and straw hats. 
The imports are cotton goods, rice, and codfish. The fish comes 
mostly from Canada, and the trade with other countries amounts 
to about $2,000,000 per year. The roads on the island are poor 


204 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


and the railroads few, but the United States Government has 
commenced the construction of roads between the most impor¬ 
tant trading centers, and American capital will undoubtedly 
extend the present railway lines. 

The government consists of an executive council composed of 
a cabinet, the members of which are Americans appointed by the 
President of the United States; and five Porto Ricans. There is 
also a lower house, of thirty-five members, who are citizens of the 
island, and are chosen by popular vote. The governor is a citizen 
of the United States, and is appointed by the President. While 
the Porto Ricans are given a franchise and local and city govern¬ 
ment, they are not recognized as citizens of the United States. 
An excellent system of schools on the American plan is now in 
operation, and the number of pupils in attendance is increasing 
more rapidly than the school facilities will accommodate Under 
American rule all conditions on the island are improving. 

The Hawaiian Islands lie at the crossroads of all great 
steamship lines of the Pacific. They are eight in 
number and are situated between 155° and 160° west longitude; 
have an area of 6740 square miles, a little more than three-fourths 
that of Massachusetts, and a population in 1916 exceeding 237,000. 
The climate is salubrious and equable, owing to the influence of 
the trade winds. The islands are of volcanic origin, and the soil, 
which has been formed by the disintegration of lava, is very fertile. 
It has accumulated in the valleys to a great thickness, and here 
most of the sugar-cane, which is the important crop.of the islands, 
is grown. This industry employs nearly all of the capital and 
labor. The cane is cultivated on large estates which are owned 
by stock companies, but nearly all of the citizens of the island 
own stock in the corporation, so that their prosperity depends upon 
the condition of the sugar industry. Rice is the next most important 
crop, and is grown in swamps by Chinese who are not affected by 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


205 


the malarial climate of these localities. Some coffee, pineapples, 
bananas, and vegetables are also grown, though only to supply 
local needs. 

The forests contain many useful trees, but have been nearly 
destroyed to secure land for sugar plantations. Cattle and sheep 
for home consumption are raised in the interior; corn, wheat,, 
rubber, grapes, tobacco, and silk worms could be successfully cul¬ 
tivated, but as none of these are as profitable as sugar-cane, they 
all give way to the sugar industry. 

Honolulu, on Oahu Island, a city of 83,000 inhabitants, is the 
most important town. It has an excellent harbor, and is the port 
of call for the largest steamers crossing the Pacific. It is a thor¬ 
oughly modern city, having electric lights, street railways, fine 
buildings, and all the improvements found in the best of American 
cities. The business of the islands is almost wholly in the hands 
of Americans and Englishmen. The position of these islands is 
remarkably favorable for commerce, and this accounts for their 
rapid increase of trade, since more steamers have begun to ply 
between the United States and the Philippine Islands, and other 
eastern ports. The islands constitute an organized territory, and 
have the regular form of territorial government. 

These islands form an archipelago extending from 
‘ the fourth degree to the twenty-first degree north 
latitude. Their greatest extent from north to 
south is about 1500 miles, and from east to west about 650 miles. 
They lie directly east of the China Sea and north of the Dutch 
East Indies. The total number of islands is between 1600 and 
3000, and their combined area about 120,000 square miles, being 
equal to that of Michigan and Wisconsin combined. Mindanao 
and Luzon, the two largest, are each about the size of the state of 
New York, and are classed among the large islands of the world. 
The other islands of importance are Samar, Negros, Panay, 
Palawan, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, and Bohol. 



ENTRANCE TO THE PASIG RIVER, MAN FLA 















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


207 


The interior of the large islands is mountainous and heavily 
timbered. The forests contain mahogany, ebony, sandal-wood, 
and other valuable timber, and in extent are estimated to have an 
area of some over 40,000,000 acres. They are of great value, and 
in due time will become an important source of income to the 
islands. Fortunately, the forest areas are public land, and have 
already come under the protection of the national Government, so 
that the waste that the forests of the United States have been sub¬ 
jected to will be prevented here. The climate is tropical, with an 
abundance of rainfall. There are three seasons: the dry-temperate, 
running from November to February; the dry-hot, from March to 
May; and the rainy or wet-temperate, from June to October. 
The soil is fertile and capable of raising good crops of all products 
which are suited to the climate. The most important agricultural 
products at present are sugar, hemp, and tobacco, each of which 
is exported in considerable quantities. Rice, Indian corn, coffee, 
cacao and indigo are also raised to quite an extent. 

The most important article of export is manila hemp, which is 
the fiber obtained from the leaves of the native tree closely related 
to the banana and plantain. This is the most valuable fiber in the 
world for the manufacture of rope, cordage, and sacking, and thou¬ 
sands of tons are exported every year. Cocoanuts, pineapples, 
copra, which is the dried kernel of the cocoanut, and timber are also 
exported. Some coal is mined on the Island of Cebu and there are 
also deposits of iron ore, copper, and sulphur, but they have been 
worked only slightly by the natives in a very primitive manner. 

The large islands are all connected by telegraph, and the com¬ 
pletion of the American-Pacific cable in 1903 placed Manila in 
direct communication with the United States over lines which are 
wholly under American control. There are also about seven hun¬ 
dred miles of railroads. The population is estimated at about nine 
millions, and is of mixed character. Most of the inhabitants have 
descended from the Negritos and the Malays. There are about 



FILIPINOS GOING TO MARKET IN MANILA 











COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


209 


25,000 whites and 50,000 Chinese on the islands. These are en¬ 
gaged in business and industrial enterprises. 

The Philippines contain a number of quite important towns, 
but Manila, the capital, is the great commercial and financial center. 
It is situated on Manila Bay, on the east coast of Luzon, and has 
one of the finest harbors on the Pacific Ocean. The harbor now 
has a large anchorage, and is capable of considerable extension by 
improvement. The city has a population of about 267,000, and is 
divided into the old and the new town. The old town is enclosed 

within a wall, and contains a number of substantial public buildings. 

_ • 

The principal manufactures are sugar, cigarettes, and textiles from 
the native fibers. Its geographical position is such as to make 
Manila an important distributing center, and is one of the great 
commercial ports of the East. 

The other important cities are, Iloilo, on Panay, with 60,000 
inhabitants; Cebu, on Cebu, 60,000; Albay, 40,000; Laoag, 
43,000; Nueva Causas, 40,000 — all on Luzon. Zamboanga, with 
24,000 inhabitants, is the chief city of Mindanao. All these cities 
have commercial relations with Manila. Iloilo is the second city 
in importance and has a profitable trade in hemp, sugar, and tobacco. 

By an act of Congress passed in 1916, the government of the 
islands was placed almost entirely in the hands of the Filipinos. 
The Governor-General and the Vice-Governor, who is also Secretary 
of the Department of Public Instruction, the Auditor and Deputy 
Auditor are appointed by the President of the United States. Both 
branches of the legislature — the Philippine Senate and the House 
of Representatives — are elective. The government is divided 
into six consecutive departments and the secretaries of these de¬ 
partments, with the exception of the Secretary of the Department 
of Public Instruction, are appointed by the Governor-General, with 
the consent of the Philippine Senate. Excellent public schools are 
maintained, and English, Spanish, and the native languages are 
taught in them. Since these islands came into the possession of the 


210 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


GUAM 


TUITUILA 


United States they have advanced rapidly in industrial and com¬ 
mercial importance. With few exceptions, the natives are indus¬ 
trious and law-abiding. Manufactures are being introduced and the 
prosperity of the Philippines seems to be assured. 

This is one of the Ladrone Islands, and was secured by 
treaty from Spain at the close of the Spanish-American 
War. It is held as a strategic point, port of call, and coaling station 
for American ships. 

- This is a small island of the Samoan group and was 
obtained through treaty with Germany and Great 
Britain. It is of value as a naval and coaling station. The princi¬ 
pal town, Pago-Pago, is situated on an excellent harbor. The 
commercial importance of this island, like that of Guam, is small, 
but the shipping interests of the United States in the Pacific make 
this port one of great convenience, and indirectly one of value. 

The Danish West Indies, comprising the 
islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John, 
and having a total area of 134 square miles, were purchased by the 
United States in 1917 for $25,000,000 and named the Virgin Islands. 
These islands are of great value for a naval station, but their com¬ 
mercial importance is comparatively insignificant. 

The combined commerce of our island possessions amounts to 
$242,000,000 per year. 


VIRGIN ISLANDS 


QUESTIONS 

What has led to the recent development of Alaska? 

What American seaports are engaged in trade with Alaska? With Hawaii? 
With the Philippines? 

Of what commercial advantage is Porto Rico to the United States? 

What is the most valuable product of Hawaii? 

What are the means of communication between Hawaii and the United 
States? Bewteen the Philippines and the United States? 

With what countries is most of the commerce of the Philippines carried on? 
What proportion of their trade is with the United States? 

What is the United States Government doing to improve the condition of 
these islands? 


Chapter XXI 


OUR TRADE WITH OTHER NATIONS 


DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN 
COMMERCE COMPARED 


The domestic commerce of every 
nation is greater than its foreign 
commerce. As we have already 


seen, the United States, on account of her great extent of terri¬ 
tory, diversity of climate, and resources, has an unusually large 
domestic commerce; and were we compelled so to do, we could 
supply nearly all of our necessities from our own possessions. But 
in so doing we should not pursue a wise policy. It is to 
our advantage to trade with foreign nations for the following 
reasons: 

First. Because many of these nations produce what we can¬ 
not, as coffee, cacao, and rubber; while others produce commodities 
more cheaply than we can, such as sugar and hemp. 

Second. Certain people are naturally better adapted to 
certain lines of work than others. The French excel in the manu¬ 
facture of small fancy articles, the Belgians in lace, the Italians in 
art work, and the Germans in toys and scientific apparatus. These 
people can produce such articles more cheaply than we, even though 
they did the work no better. 

Third. We can produce certain commodities that other 
nations cannot, such as cotton and copper, and we produce many 
commodities more cheaply or better than other nations can, espe¬ 
cially the great food staples, wheat, corn, and meat. 

Fourth. Interchange of commoditfes between nations stimu¬ 
lates thought and promotes industry. In all ages commerce has 
been the greatest promoter of civilization, and nations that refrain 


211 


212 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


from trading with other nations, or who, unneccessarily, restrict 
their foreign trade, never take a prominent place among the 
great powers of the world. 

The same principles govern foreign commerce as 

PRINCIPLES 1 1 ~ ° 

apply to domestic commerce. In our trade at 

home we patronize those who are most conveniently located, and 
who otherwise meet our demands most satisfactorily, so in trading 
with other nations, we have the largest proportion of trade with 
those who are most conveniently located, and with those with 
whom our exchange of commodities is best suited to our interests. 
The exports and imports between nations are seldom equal, and 

the difference in value between 
these is known as the balance in 
trade. The nation whose exports 
exceed in value its imports, has a 
balance of trade in its favor, but 
the nation whose imports exceed 
its exports has a balance of trade 
against it. In the first instance 
the nation may be called a cred¬ 
itor ; in the second it is a debtor. 
In our commerce with other nations, in late years, the balance of 
trade has usually been in our favor. 

Our exports are naturally from those commodities 

EXPORTS 1 J 

that we produce in the largest quantities. The first 

use of all products is that for home consumption, then the surplus, 
if any, is sent to foreign markets. For this reason we shall find 
nearly the same commodities from the United States in all coun¬ 
tries with which we have trade, although they vary somewhat in 
relative proportion. The nations of Europe and Asia use more of 
our manufactured iron and steel than do those of the tropical 
regions; while the nations of the tropics use relatively larger 


United States 


Rest of the World 




COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


213 


quantities of our cotton goods than the nations of Europe which 
do their own manufacturing. 

While our exports include between seventy and one hundred 
commodities, those having great value are comparatively few in 
number. In order of their importance they are, agricultural 
products, including food produce, raw material and domestic ani¬ 
mals ; manufactures, including iron and steel, cotton goods, forest 
products, leather and leather manufactures ; petroleum and other oils, 
and manufactured tobacco. The total value of our exports for the 
year ending June 30, 1921, was $6,516,315,346. Our imports for 
the same period were $3,654,402,869. Our agricultural implements 
tools, machinery and railway appliances are found in nearly every 
civilized country on the globe ; our cotton goods go to all coun¬ 
tries except those of Europe and British India, and our boots and 
shoes have an extensive sale. In relative importance our exports 
are as follows : 

PEH CENT 

Agricultural Products.62.73 

* 

Manufactures.29.28 


Forest Products.4.16 

Mining Products.2.81 


IMPORTS 


Our imports are of a more varied character than our 
exports, since we obtain from each country its 
principal products which we can secure to our best advantage. 
From the tropical countries of South America and the West Indies 
we import coffee, cacao, sugar, rice, tobacco, rubber, cinchona 
and various other drugs; and from other tropical regions w T e 
obtain spices, gums and drugs. Most of our coffee comes from 
Brazil, and all of our rubber from South America, Central America 
and Mexico. Baw material in the shape of hides, wool and fiber 
is also imported from these countries. 

From Europe we obtain raw material for manufacturing, such 




214 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


as iron, yarns and numerous other articles that are partially man¬ 
ufactured. We also import from European countries many manu¬ 
factured articles, such as woolen and silk goods, ribbons, gloves, 
scientific apparatus and numerous small articles, like steel pens and 
cutlery, from England, jewelry from France and artwork from Italy. 

From China and Japan we obtain most of our tea and raw silk, 
and from India, tea, certain varieties of cotton goods, Indian rugs, 
and other manufactures peculiar to that country. From Australia 
we obtain wool and hides. Our trade with Africa is small, and 
while American machinery and a few other products are exported 
in considerable quantities to this continent, our imports from 
African countries are very light. 

The bulk of our foreign trade is carried on with the European 
nations; The United Kingdom, Germany, France, Belgium and 
Netherlands in the order named, being the most important. Europe 
takes about three-fourths of our exports, and furnishes us with 
about one-half of our imports. Many of the exports to European 
countries, especially to England, are not used there, but are sent 
on to Asiatic, African and even South American people. Of the 
other nations, Canada is the most important in North America, 
Brazil, Argentina and Chili in South America, and Japan and 
China in Asia. In the order of their value, our imports are 
sugar, coffee, chemicals and drugs, hides and skins, cotton goods, 
iron and steel manufactures, raw silk and silk goods. In their 


relative proportions they are as follows : 

PKR CENT 

Raw Material.38 

Food and Domestic Animals.21 

Manufactures.16.79 

Luxuries.14.47 


TRANSPORTATION 


The map of ocean routes shows that the lead¬ 
ing Atlantic ports have numerous lines of 





COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


215 


steamers plying between them and Liverpool, Hamburg, Bordeaux 
and other important European cities, and that San Francisco, Seattle, 
Portland and Tacoma have important lines of steamers connecting 
them with the Hawaiian Islands, the ports of Japan and China, the 
Philippine Islands and Australia. 

Previous to the World War, only a small part of our foreign 
trade was carried in American ships; British, French and German 
vessels on the Atlantic and Japanese ships on the Pacific Ocean did 
most of our carrying trade. Since the manufacturing industries of the 
country are now able to produce much more than we can consume 
at home, it is to our advantage to seek foreign markets, and this 
can be done with an American Merchant Marine much more suc¬ 
cessfully than is possible when we are under the necessity of employing 
foreign ships, because the ships of each nation try to promote the 
trade of their own country. The principal reasons for the pre-war 
conditions of American shipping were: the Civil war occurred just 
at the time when steel ships were replacing those of wood and all the 
attention of the country was directed to war. After the War we gave 
so much thought to the development of our internal resources tnai 
the building of ships for foreign trade was neglected. 

European nations were alive to their opportunity, and during 
these periods secured control of most of the ocean-carrying trade. 
No measures that the government seemed able to devise succeeded 
in the development of an American Merchant Marine. When the 
United States entered the World War, American owned ships became 
a vital necessity, and such strenuous efforts were made to supply the 
need that in 1920 the United States had a merchant marine second 
only to that of Great Britain, and American ships were carrying more 
than one-fourth the foreign commerce of the country. Since it is the 
plan to sell government-owned merchant ships to Americans as far 
as practicable, it is probable that our merchant marine will continue 
to increase. 


216 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


QUESTIONS 

Why should the domestic commerce of a nation exceed its foreign 
commerce ? 

Show how commerce promotes civilization. 

Why do we import iron and cotton and woolen goods, when we are 
constantly exporting these commodities? 

With wJrat European ports does New York have direct steamer connec¬ 
tions? Does Boston have connection with the same ports? 

Why is such a large proportion of our foreign trade carried in the 
ships of other nations ? 

What has contributed to tike rapid increase of our commerce with 
China and Japan? 


Chapter XXII 


COMMERCIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 

The first census of the United States was taken in 1790. At 
that time the western boundary of the country was at the Missis¬ 
sippi River, and the area was 892,135 square miles, only a small 
portion of which was settled, and this constituted a narrow strip 
of land extending from Maine to Georgia, and from the Atlantic 
coast to the Appalachian Mountains. Our population was only half 
a million more than the population of New York City in 1900, and 
was exceeded in our last census by the population of each of the 
following states: New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. In 
1790 there were only three cities that were worthy of the name: 
Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, and these were scarcely more 
than good-sized villages. There was no such thing in the world as 
a railroad, a steamboat, or a telegraph Even carriage roads were 
few, and so poor that they were impassable a good portion of the 
year. The country possessed only nine hundred postoffices, and 
the annual receipts of the postal department were about $281,000. 
Less than fifty newspapers were published in the entire country. 

The nation was burdened with a debt that was equal to $15.63 
per capita. The total amount of coinage was a little over half a 
million dollars. There were no banks under national supervision, 
and the value of our manufactures was so small that it did not ap¬ 
pear in the census report. The annual revenue of the government 
was about $10,849,000. Our imports amounted to $91,250,000 
and our exports to about $71,000,000, making our entire foreign 
trade about $162,250,000. 

Our industries had been ruined by a long war; our currency 

217 


218 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


was worthless, and our credit gone. The only industry at all com¬ 
parable with those of foreign nations was our carrying trade. 
We had over 100,000 vessels and two-thirds of our tonnage was en¬ 
gaged in foreign trade. No patents were issued, no immigrants 
arrived, and the nations predicted the speedy downfall of the new 
republic. 

The condition of the nation at the census of 1920 shows a prog¬ 
ress during the intervening period unequalled by that of any other 
nation in the world’s history. From a little over three-fourths of 
a million square miles our territory increased to 3,025,600 square 
miles, or over three and a half times. From the narrow area occu¬ 
pied by our forefathers at the close of the Revolution, American settle¬ 
ments and institutions have extended more than half the way round 
the world, and the extent of our Pacific coast line exceeds the distance 
from New York to San Francisco. 

The last census shows that at the end of the second decade of the 
twentieth century the United States had about 1000 cities of 5000 or 
more inhabitants and that of these 68 had a population of 100,000 or 
over. 

The census of 1830 reported twenty-three miles of railway in 
operation, and that of 1910 reported 207,977 miles, which number 
has since been increased to over 253,000 miles. We now have over 
52,000 postoffices, and the annual receipts of the postoffice depart¬ 
ment exceed $463,491,000. In 1790 there were less than fifty news¬ 
papers in the country, and in 1910 this number had increased to 
22,725. Telegraph messages were not reported until 1870, when 
they exceeded 9,157,000, and in 1900 this number had increased 
to over 63,258,000, and in 1918 the number was 155,263,206, 
an increase of nearly tenfold in thirty years. The first 
telegraph line was completed in 1844, and extended between 
Washington and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. In 1900 
the country had over 933,000 miles of lines, and these have now 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


219 


been extended to exceed 2,020,000 miles. The first public experi¬ 
ment with the telephone was made at the Centennial Exposition in 
Philadelphia in 1876. In 1920 there were in the country, 22,137,480 
miles of telephone lines, 8,333,980 stations, and the daily exchanges 
exceeded 33,102,000. 

In 1921 the gold coined in the country exceeded $76,990,000, 
and the money in circulation amounted to over $5,774,065,654, or 
$53.42 for every man, woman, and child in the country. There were 
8154 national banks, with a capital of $1,220,781,000 and the bank 
clearings amounted to $462,920,250,000. The ordinary receipts of 
the government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1921, were $4,109,- 
000,000, and the expenditures were $3,795,000,000. The domestic 
animals in the United States January 1 , 1921, were valued at $6,236,- 
069,000. Our agricultural products and our manufactures exceed in 
value those of any other country. Soon after the outbreak of the 
great war in Europe, the United States became a creditor nation, and 
during the war she loaned billions of dollars to Great Britain, France, 
and Russia. 

The United States began the twentieth century under exceed¬ 
ingly favorable conditions. The period from 1870 to 1900 had wit¬ 
nessed remarkable progress running through all lines of industrial 
and commercial activity. Our industrial and commercial posi¬ 
tion in the world is shown by the following comparisons. We 
produce five-sixths of the cotton, one-sixth of the wool, three-fourths 
of the corn, one-fifth of the wheat, one-third of the coal, one-fourth 
of the cattle, one-half of the hogs, a little more than one-third of the 
iron and steel, two-thirds of the copper, one-fifth of the silver, one- 
half of the gold, one-half of the tobacco, one-third of the lumber, one- 
third of the manufactures, and one-fourth of the commerce of the 
world. 

In manufactures we lead the world, and our manufactures 
exceed those of the United Kingdom and Germany combined, 


220 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


who stand next to us as the two greatest manufacturing nations. 
We own nearly one-half of the railway mileage and more than 
one-half of the telegraph and telephone lines of the world. Our 
total commerce is exceeded only by that of Great Britain, and our 
trade with foreign countries is steadily increasing. 

The geographical position of the United States is such that it 
is especially favorable for international trade. Situated between 

the two oceans we have equal 
facilities for trade with the coun¬ 
tries of both Europe and Asia, 
and our position in the Pacific 
Ocean gives us an excellent 
opportunity to increase our traf¬ 
fic with this part of the world. 
There is a widespread interest in 
industrial and commercial educa¬ 
tion, and the schools of the coun¬ 
try are each year sending out thousands of young men specially 
fitted for a business career. 

Our greatest hindrances are the lack of training among our 
consuls and commercial representatives abroad, the unwillingness 
of the great majority of American manufacturers to study intel¬ 
ligently the needs of foreign countries and to make such goods as 
the inhabitants of those countries desire. This is especially true of 
our inability to adapt our manufactures to the wants of the people 
in tropical countries. Under the stimulus given it by the World War, 
our merchant marine has rapidly increased and American ships are 
now found in every important port in the world. Our foreign com¬ 
merce is steadily growing. 

Since our acquisition of Hawaii, the Philippine Islands, Porto 
Rico, and the Virgin Islands, our expansion as a world power has been 
rapid. Escaping most of the calamities that befell the European na- 


United States 


Rest of the World 


TOBACCO 




COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


221 


tions, the United States at the signing of the Armistice in 1918 was the 
leading nation of the world in wealth, in manufactures, and in com¬ 
merce. Through financial stress of 1920 and 1921, she maintained 
her position, and there is every prospect that she will continue to be 
the world’s example in the arts of peace. 

QUESTIONS 

Why did the United States become a creditor nation during the World War? 

What geographic conditions favor the foreign commerce of the United States? 

How does the American merchant marine compare with that of other nations? 



WHEATFIELD, ALBERTA 




PART TWO 

COMMERCE OF FOREIGN NATIONS 

Foreign countries in their trade with the United States and with 
each other are governed by the principles laid down in the discussion 
of the commerce of our own country. They buy what they can not 
produce, or what other countries can produce better or more eco¬ 
nomically, and sell what they can produce in the largest quantity and 
to their greatest economical advantage. 


Chapter I 


DOMINION OF CANADA 


Canada, the most important Dominion of the British 
LOCATION Empire, occupies all the mainland of North America 
AND AREA north of t pe United States, except Alaska and Labra¬ 
dor. The Dominion’s greatest extent from east to west is 2700 miles 
and from north to south 1600 miles j the area, 3,729,665 square miles 
is equal to nearly one-half the continent of North America. It is a 
little larger than the United States and a little smaller than Europe. 
Including the portion of the Great Lakes that belong to Canada 125,755 
square miles of this area is water surface. The total area given above, 
however, does not include Hudson Bay, 443,750 square miles and the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, 101,562 square miles. 

This vast area comprises the following provinces and territories: 


Province 

Alberta . 

British Columbia 
Manitoba . 


Square Miles 

. 255,285 

. 355,855 

. 251,832 

223 





224 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


New Brunswick. 27,985 

Nova Scotia... 21,428 

Ontario . 407,262 

Prince Edward Island. 2,184 

Quebec . 706,834 

Saskatchewan . 492,432 

Northwest Territories .1,242,224 

Yukon . 207,076 


Total ..3,729,665 

The St. John River forms the boundary between New Brunswick 
and Maine, thence an irregular line extends southwest to the Con¬ 
necticut River, then the boundary follows the forty-fifth parallel 
westward to the St. Lawrence River. From this point the deepest 
channel through Lakes Ontario, Huron and Superior and the Pigeon 
and Rainy Rivers form the boundary to the Lake of the Woods. From 
this lake to the Pacific Coast the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude 
is the dividing line between the Dominion and the United States. 
The crest of the Rocky Mountains forms the natural boundary be¬ 
tween Canada and Alaska and the range forming this border includes 
some of the highest peaks in North America. 


SURFACE 


The surface of Canada is divided into three great re¬ 


gions—the Eastern Highlands, the Central Plain, and 
the Western Highlands and Coast Region. 


Eastern 


Eastern Highlands includes all the region from Labrador 
to Hudson Bay and a small area west of that body of 
Highlands wa ter. The highest points in this section, about 8000 
feet above the sea, are in Labrador. But from Labrador westward the 
plateau descends rapidly and the greater part of Northern Quebec 
has an altitude of 2000 feet or less. The most of this interior consists 
of a succession of low rocky ridges covered with light forests or barren. 













7 3 V A' K/, 


..•-.0 .<? c 


cq?8S 

£ iS? y 


Loncltude West Wfi fioni Greenwich 
































































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


225 

Between the ridges are valleys containing lakes, swamps, and rapid 
streams whose cascades and waterfalls lend interest and charm to the 
scenery and form sources of future water power. A low ridge or 
“height of land” separates the streams flowing into Hudson Bay from 
those flowing into the St. Lawrence. 



VICTORIA BRIDGE, MONTREAL 


The valley of the St, Lawrence is the outstanding geographic 
feature of Eastern Canada. The entire valley is noted for its fertile 
soil and temperate climate and this valley and the southern part of 
Ontario are the most densely populated sections of the Dominion. As 
the St. Lawrence approaches its mouth the valley is narrowed by the 
Gaspe Peninsula which is a part of the Appalachian Mountain system. 

The Central Plain occupies the region between the 
The Central eas t e rn and western highlands. At the international 
Plain boundary it is about 700 miles wide, but it narrows to 

400 miles at the northern border. The divide separating the streams 










226 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


of the Mississippi system from those flowing into Hudson Bay is near 
the international boundary and all the large rivers lie wholly within 
Canadian territory. Some of the rivers have worn channels from 100 
to 200 feet deep, forming small canyons. This region comprises the 
northern part of the Great Central Plain of North America and is 
characterized by the same general features as are found in the Dakotas. 
The highest elevation, about 4500 feet, is in the southwestern part of 
Alberta; the general surface of the plain is flat and in the northeast 
there are so few elevations that even a low hill is likely to be called a 
“mountain.” The northern part of the region is covered with forests, 
but the southern portion is treeless, except along the banks of streams. 
The surface is covered with a deep fertile soil and this part of Canada 
has become one of the great wheat-producing regions of the world. 
It includes the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. 
This region is the destination of a great majority of the immigrants, 
and the population is rapidly increasing. 

The third great topographical division includes British 
Western Columbia, Yukon and the western part of Alberta. It 
Highlands comprises a part of the northern extremity of the great 
Cordillera, which extends the entire length of the American continent. 
The western Highlands consist of parallel ranges separated by broad 
or deep valleys. The Eastern slopes of the mountains are gradual, 
but in most places the western slopes are precipitous. The summits 
cool the moisture-laden winds from the Pacific and the western slope is 
subject to heavy rainfall. Because of their latitude many of these 
mountains are capped with perpetual snow. Glaciers fill most of the 
mountain gorges, beautiful lakes are found in the valleys and the 
region is widely known for the beauty and grandeur of its scenery. 
Excepting Mount Logan in Yukon (19,539 feet), the highest point in 
Canada, none of the summits exceeds 11,000 feet in altitude. The 
streams furnish abundant water power and fruit is successfully grown 
in the valleys. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


227 


CLIMATE ^ 1G c ^ ma ^ e Canada as a whole varies from temperate 
to sub-Arctic and Arctic. But in a country so vast, 
there are many variations in temperature and rainfall, due to local 
conditions. Throughout the Dominion the weather is bracing summer 
and winter and there are many bright clear days. The winters are 
severe with a heavy fall of snow. Summer is short, but the days are 
long, and in the north the sun shines twenty hours out of the twenty- 
four. Vegetation grows rapidly and all crops suited to a cool tem¬ 
perate climate mature as far north as the Peace River valley. 

The climate of the Maritime provinces is affected by the warm cur¬ 
rents in the Atlantic Ocean. Fogs are frequent and rainfalls heavy. 
This region and that part of Ontario between Lake Ontario and Lake 
Huron have a more equable temperature than any other parts of the 
Dominion, and they are well suited to the production of fruit. Apples, 
pears, plums and small fruits are grown in abundance. 

Northern Quebec and Ontario have an attractive summer climate 
and here are found many delightful resorts for tourists. The prairie 
provinces have a typical continental climate—long cold winters and 
short hot summers. This region is especially suited to the production 
of grain, vegetables and live stock. Because of the warm current in 
the Pacific Ocean, British Columbia has a milder climate than other 
portions of the Dominion in the same latitude. The moisture-laden 
winds from the ocean are cooled as they strike the high mountains 
and lose most of their moisture. On the western slopes the rainfall 
is heavy, while the eastern slopes have little or no rain. In western 
Alberta the severe winters are modified by the Chinook, a warm, dry 
wind that blows down the/ mountains. 

The eastern and western highland regions are con¬ 
tinuations of the Appalachian, the Rocky and the 
Coast ranges respectively and the same minerals 
found in these mountains in the United States exist in corresponding 
parts of Canada. There is also a third mineral region north of Lake 


MINERALS 
AND MINING 


228 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Superior. Canada is rich in minerals but development of the mining 
industry has scarcely begun. 

At present, coal is the most valuable mineral product. Large 
Coal deposits of bituminous coal are found in Nova Scotia and this 
province leads in the production of coal, the annual output averaging 
from 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 tons. About two-thirds of this coal is 
shipped by water to Boston and other New England ports, some is used 
to supply local demands and some goes westward to supply fuel for 
the inhabitants of Quebec and Ontario. 

The mines of British Columbia produce from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 
tons a year and those of Alberta about 4,000,000 tons. Alberta con¬ 
tains rich deposits of semi-anthracite. The coal measures of Alberta 
are estimated to be larger than those of any other province. The out¬ 
put of all mines in these provinces is used to supply local needs. These 
are rapidly increasing with the increase of population and the expan¬ 


Petroleum 


sion of manufactures. 

The oil fields in Ontario between lakes Erie and Huron 
are the chief source of petroleum in Canada and most of 
the petroleum and petroleum products used in the country are imported 
from the United States. Prospectors for petroleum are active in Al¬ 
berta and in 1921 an oil field was discovered on the Mackenzie River 
near the Arctic Circle, but the oil from this source is not yet available 
because of lack of transportation facilities. 

The richest gold and silver mines of Canada are in the 
Porcupine district in Ontario, about three hundred miles 
north of Toronto. This is the richest silver producing 
region of Canada and one of the richest silver regions of the world 
as well. Large quantities of lead are obtained in smelting the silver 


Gold and 
Silver 


ore. 


There are valuable gold mines in British Columbia and in the 
Klondike region in Yukon, but the production of the Klondike mines 
has fallen off rapidly in the last few years. There may be traces of 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


229 


gold and silver in the other provinces but no deposits of sufficient 
value to pay for working them have been found. 

Other The mines near Sudbury, Ontario, produce most of the 
Minerals world’s supply of nickel, and about four-fifths of the 
asbestos comes from the Province of Quebec, the principal mines being 
near Thetford. Iron ore is found in every province, but only a small 
quantity of iron and steel are produced, although the world war gave 
considerable stimulus to the industry. Copper occurs in the south¬ 
eastern part of Quebec, on the north shore of Lake Superior and in 
British Columbia. Copper mines are active in all these localities. 

FORESTS °^ ier lumber-producing country contains such ex¬ 
tensive forests as Canada. The forest areas extend in 
an unbroken belt from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick across the 
country to the Pacific coast in British Columbia and northward. There 
are about 500,000,000 acres or 780,000 square miles of forest in this 
area, over half of which is covered with merchantable timber. 

In the eastern section of this belt the principal trees nre red and 
black spruce, red and white pine, balsam fir, tamarack and hemlock. 
In British Columbia the Douglas fir is the chief source of lumber sup¬ 
ply. Ottawa is the chief center of the lumber industry, and obtains 
its supply of timber from the pine forests to the north and northwest. 
Extensive mills are also found on Parry Sound and Georgian Bay. 
Most of the lumber of this region is exported to the United States by 
the way of the Great Lakes. The lumber manufactured in New 
Brunswick and Nova Scotia finds a market in the New England States. 
The forests of this region also supply considerable wood pulp and pulp 
wood. The lumber of Quebec and a portion of that of New Bruns¬ 
wick is exported to England, while the British Columbian mills find a 
market for their surplus product in trade with the Pacific towns of the 
United States. The manufacture of wood pulp has become a thriving 
industry and the annual export of this product to the United States 
amounts to about $85,000,000. 


230 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


FISHERIES 


The fisheries of Canada are extensive and valuable. 
They furnish employment for about 85,000 men, and in 
1920 the fish marketed amounted to nearly $50,000,000. In addition 
to the Arctic coast, Canada has over 5000 miles of coast line on the 
Atlantic and over 7000 miles on the Pacific; everywhere the coast 
waters abound in fish. There are also 220,000 square miles of fresh 
water including the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes which is a 
valuable source of fresh water fish. There are more than forty varie¬ 
ties of food fish in Canadian waters, but only a few are of economic 
interest. These are in the order of their value: salmon, cod, halibut, 
herring and lobster, among the salt water fish; and lake trout, white 
fish and sturgeon among fresh water fish. Salmon, the most of which 
is taken in British Columbia, is of first importance and its value is 
nearly twice that ©f any other species; then follow in the order of their 
values cod, halibut, herring, and lobster. Lake trout and whitefish 
are the most valuable of the fresh water fish. Fish shipped to distant 
markets are packed in ice or sent in refrigerator ships or cars. 

Since the advent of the early French settlers, Canada has 
been one of the leading fur countries of the world, and the 
great forests of the interior still furnish a good supply, since every ani¬ 
mal of the forests is a fur-bearing animal. The hunters travel the 
woodlands during the winter and in the spring bring their pelts to the 
trading posts to exchange them for food, clothing and such other com¬ 
modities as they may need. Edmonton, Alberta, is the chief center 
of this traffic. Previous to the World War the more expensive skins 
were sent to England for dressing, but much of that work is now done 
in the United States and Canada. The fur trade- is in control of the 
Hudson Bay Company, which formerly held political sway over a vast 
area in British America. 

In Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and some 
parts of Quebec, fur farming has become a paying industry. Black 
and silver foxes are given the most attention because their skins are 


FURS 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


231 


AGRICULTURE 


the most valuable. A prize skin is frequently sold for more than 
$2000 and choice animals sell for as much or more for breeding pur¬ 
poses. Other varieties of fox, mink, raccoon, skunk, lynx and other 
animals are also raised for their fur. In 1920 there were 16,530 ani¬ 
mals on fur farms, and their aggregate value was $4,723,000. 

Canada is naturally an agricultural country, and 
about three-fourths of the people are farmers, but a 
large portion of tillable land in the interior is still undeveloped. Soil, 
climate and markets vary so widely in parts of the country far distant 
from each other that the conditions and opportunities for agriculture 
are more easily understood, if we divide the provinces into two great 
groups—Eastern and Western. 

This group includes the provinces between the At- 
Eastern Group lantic Ocean and Manitoba, or the Maritime Prov¬ 
inces, Quebec and Ontario. In these older provinces agriculture has 
naturally reached a more complete stage of development. The regions 
representing the highest state of cultivation include Prince Edward 
Island, some of the sheltered valleys of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, 
the valley of the St.. Lawrence above Quebec and the southern part 
of Ontario, especially the peninsula between Lakes Ontario and Huron. 


Because of its high state of cultivation, and variety of products, this 
region is known as the “Garden of Canada.” The provinces in this 
group are better known for a variety of crops and diversified farming, 
than for the value of their entire output. New Brunswick and Nova 
Scotia are noted for their apples, and the Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia, 
and St. Johns’ Valley in New Brunswick are among the most celebrated 
apple regions of the world. Potatoes and vegetables also receive spe¬ 
cial attention in these provinces. Quebec exceeds all the other prov¬ 
inces in its dairy products and especially in the production of cheese. 

Considerable attention is given to raising live stock, and excellent 
breeds of cattle, horses, sheep and swine are found, especially in 
Ontario, which is widely known for its cattle 


232 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


The Western 
Provinces 


The western provinces include Manitoba, Saskatche¬ 
wan, Alberta and British Columbia. In the three 
provinces first named, conditions are similar to those 


in Minnesota and North Dakota. The great stretches of prairie are 
adapted to farming on a large scale, and in general, large farms worked 
by machinery and producing large crops constitute the chief agricul¬ 
tural characteristic of this region. Farmers specialize on a few crops 
and the variety of crops found in the eastern provinces is lacking. 
These provinces are especially suited to the production of spring wheat 
and they have become one of the great wheat-producing regions of the 
world. A five year average of production (1915-1919) in these prov¬ 
inces was 15.11 bushels per acre, which is higher than the average of 
any other wheat-producing country except the United Kingdom for 
the same period. In 1920 the wheat crop in these three provinces 
amounted to 234,138,000 bushels distributed as follows: Manitoba, 
37,542,000 bushels; Alberta, 83,461,000 bushels; Saskatchewan, 113,- 
135,000 bushels. Ontario, with a production of 22,973,000 bushels, is 
the only eastern province that approaches them. 

This wheat is marketed in the United Kingdom, the eastern prov¬ 
inces and the United States. That shipped eastward is carried by rail 
to Port Arthur and Fort William, Ontario, where there is one of the 
most commodious harbors on the Great Lakes. Then it is transhipped 
by boat. These towns have the largest elevators in the world and 
their combined storage capacity in 1923 was 65,000,000 bushels. The 
wheat crop of Canada in 1921 amounted to 300,858,100 bushels, valued 
at $242,936,000. 

Oats, barley, rye and potatoes are also important crops. Dairy¬ 
ing is a valuable and rapidly growing industry and butter and cheese are 
made in large quantities. These provinces also take high rank in the 
number and quality of their live stock. Some sections are especially 
adapted to the live stock industry because of mild winters and their 
excellent conditions for grazing. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


233 


In its agriculture, British Columbia more closely resembles the 
states south of the international boundary—Washington, Oregon and 
the northern part of California. The farm lands are located in the 
river valleys and soil and climate are suited to raising a variety of 
crops. Farms are smaller than in the prairie provinces and some 
localities are noted for the quality of their apples, pears, peaches and 
small fruits. 



THE HARBOR, QUEBEC 


MANUFACTURES 


The World War gave an impetus to the manu¬ 
facturing industry that in a measure is still ac¬ 
tive. The great demand for capital to develop natural resources and 
construct railways, and ability to purchase many manufactured prod¬ 
ucts in the United States and the United Kingdom at less expense than 
they can be manufactured at home, have prevented a rapid develop¬ 
ment of manufacturing industries, but the progress from 1911 to 1921 
was greater than during any previous decade. 







234 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Naturally the manufacturing industries of Canada are engaged in 
working up the raw material at hand. In 1920 the six leading in¬ 
dustries in order of value of their products were flour and gristmill 
products, slaughtering and meat packing, lumber, wood pulp, butter 
and cheese and refined sugar. Other important industries include build¬ 
ing and construction, shipbuilding, cotton fabrics, automobiles, boots 
and shoes, and electric light and power. 

The chief manufacturing region is in the southern part of Ontario 
and Quebec. The chief water power and the bulk of the population 
are there and this region has ready access to markets and ample trans¬ 
portation facilities. Montreal is the leading manufacturing and com¬ 
mercial center of the Dominion. Large sugar refineries, foundries 
and machine shops, cotton mills, boot and shoe factories and many other 
industries are located there. 

In 1919 there were over 11,000 manufacturing establishments in 
the province. The chief manufacturing centers are located along the 
St. Lawrence and in the eastern townships. Chicoutimi, at the head 
of navigation on the Saguenay River, has extensive pulp mills and 
ships annually over 60,000 tons of dry pulp to England. Toronto and 
Hamilton are the chief manufacturing centers of Ontario and at 
Niagara Falls is one of the largest hydro-electric plants in the world. 

At least half of the manufacturing industries of the Dominion are 
located in Ontario, including the most of the American branch factories 
which firms in the LTnited States have established in Canada. 

The manufactures of western Canada are as varied as those of 
the older eastern provinces, but the output is smaller, since their chief 
purpose is to supply local demands. Winnipeg, Manitoba; Regina, 
Saskatchewan; Calgary and Edmonton, Albert, and Vancouver, British 
Columbia are the chief industrial centers of these provinces. The 
geographic position of British Columbia and its potential water power 
make it a desirable location for manufacturers whose product is 
shipped to China, Japan and other oriental countries. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


235 


TRANSPORTATION 


The Dominion of Canada has over 30,000 miles 
of railway which % a larger mileage per capita 
of population than is found in any other country except the common¬ 
wealth of Australia. This mileage comprises three great transconti¬ 
nental systems, which with their branch lines and feeders provide trans¬ 
portation for the greater part of the country. They are: the Grand 
Trunk, which with the Grand Trunk Pacific extends from Portland, 
Maine, to Prince Rupert in British Columbia. The Inter-colonial ex¬ 
tending from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Montreal, a distance of 1450 
miles. The route is along the south bank of the St. Lawrence. The 
Canadian Pacific originally extending from St. Johns, New Bruns¬ 
wick, to Vancouver, British Columbia. This railway was completed 
in 1885, and was constructed to connect British Columbia with the 
eastern provinces and to secure that province as a member of the con¬ 
federation. The system has been extended until it now comprises over 
12,000 miles, including lines to Boston and Chicago. 

The Canadian Northern extending from the city of Quebec to 
the Pacific coast over a route north of the St. Lawrence through the 
provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and westward from Winnipeg through 
a region far north of the other transcontinental lines. The system in¬ 
cludes about 6600 miles and it has opened up to settlement a vast 
region hitherto inaccessible. A branch from Pas on the main line to 
Port Nelson on Hudson Bay, will soon open a new and shorter route to 
Europe during the summer months. 

These great transcontinental railways have been the pioneers in 
the development of the prairie provinces and British Columbia. The 
settlers have followed the railway, without which this great productive 
region would doubtless have remained in a state of nature for many 
years. The Intercolonial, Grand Trunk Pacific, and Canadian North¬ 
ern are operated by the government, under the name of Canadian 
National Railways. The great railway centers in the eastern provinces 
are in Quebec, Montreal; in Ontario, Toronto, Hamilton, London, 


236 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Niagara Falls and Sarnia. In the western provinces Winnipeg, Mani¬ 
toba; Regina, Saskatchewan; Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta, and 
Vancouver, British Columbia. 

__ Ever since Canada has been known to white men, the 

St. Lawrence River has been the great natural highway 
to the interior of the country. Excepting a few months in the winter, 
when the river is frozen over, ocean ships ascend it as far as Montreal, 
where they take cargoes of grain and other produce brought from the 
western provinces by rail or by boats navigating the Great Lakes for 
the river is navigable its entire length for boats of fourteen foot draught. 
The Saguenay, the Great Northern tributary is navigable to Chicoutimi 
in the heart of the lumber country. A canal around the rapids in the 
Richilieu at Chambly enables boats to pass between Lake Champlain 
and the St. Lawrence. Canals around the rapids in the St. Lawrence 
between Lake Ontario and Montreal enable freight boats to pass up or 
down the river; the Welland Canal overcomes the fall between Lake 
Erie and Lake Ontario, and the Canal at Sault Ste. Marie overcomes 
the falls in the Saint Marys River as it leaves Lake Superior. There is 
an unbroken waterway from the Atlantic Ocean to every port on the 
Great Lakes. The Rideau Canal extends from Ottawa to Lake Ontario 
at Kingston, and the Trent Canal consists of a chain of lakes and canal¬ 
ized rivers connecting Georgian Bay with Lake Ontario. This canal 
shortens the distance between the points named, and is very popular 
with boats of light draught; over 5,000 vessels used it in 1921. 
With the completion of the proposed improvements in the St. 
Lawrence canals Canadian lake ports will have direct connection 
with Europe. 

Halifax is the most important harbor on the Atlantic Coast, and 
Vancouver and Prince Rupert, are the leading beaports on the Canadian 
Pacific coast. 

From all viewpoints, Canada has excellent transportation facilities, 
except in some of the most sparsely settled regions along the northern 
frontier and here conditions are improving each year. 



THE WATER FRONT, MONTREAL 










COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


238 


COMMERCE 


The foregoing descriptions of Canada and her re¬ 
sources shows us definitely the nature of her com¬ 
merce. The great stores of raw material must reach manufacturing 
centers where this material is converted into a variety of useful prod¬ 
ucts. These products in turn must reach the consumer. Since the 
great manufacturing centers of the world and the most densely popu¬ 
lated regions lie outside the Dominion, it naturally follows that Canada 
has a large foreign commerce. In 1921 the imports for consumption 
amounted to $1,249,158,882, and the exports to $1,189,163,701. This 
shows that Canada buys from foreign countries a little more than she 
sells to them. Over thirty countries are represented in this trade. 
Over one-half the entire amount is with the United States and about 
one-third with the United Kingdom, then follow, in order of impor¬ 
tance Cuba, France, British West Indies, British East Indies, Switzer¬ 
land, Mexico and Japan. The trade with other countries is small. 


Because of Canada’s geographic position the ocean routes to Eu¬ 
rope and to the Orient are shorter than those leading to and from ports 
in the United States, and this advantage is realized by Canadian ship¬ 
pers. The Canadian Pacific Railway has its own lines of ships plying 
between Montreal and Quebec and European ports, and between Van¬ 
couver and the ports of China and Japan. The great railway and 
steamship lines are engaged in an extensive carrying trade for firms in 
the United States and other countries, as well as in transporting the 
commodities of the Dominion. 


The great trade centers, beginning on the Atlantic coast and travel¬ 
ing westward are: Halifax with its magnificent harbor open the entire 
year. Halifax is 616 miles nearer Liverpool than is New York. Why? 
Passing up the Gulf of St. Lawrence, soon after entering the broad 
estuary of the river we come to the city of Quebec which has an ex¬ 
cellent harbor. Further on is Montreal at the head of navigation for 
ocean going ships. Here ships from Europe meet railway trains from 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


239 


across the continent and exchange cargoes with them. Montreal is the 
metropolis and largest trade center of the Dominion. 

Next to Montreal in its volume of trade is Toronto, the capital and 
metropolis of Ontario. Following Toronto, is Ottawa, the capital of 
the Dominion, and noted for its extensive lumber trade. Hamilton 
and London in Ontario are also important. Winnipeg is the great 
railway and trade center of Manitoba and the third city in the Domin¬ 
ion, measured by its volume of business. Regina is the chief market 
in Saskatchewan; Calgary and Edmonton are the leading centers in 
Alberta; Vancouver, British Columbia, is the fourth commercial center 
of Canada, and carries on an extensive trade with the Orient. 

Politically Newfoundland is not a part of the 
Dominion of Canada, but is governed as a 
distinct British Colony. Fishing constitutes the principal industry 
of the island. There are also many good farms, and agriculture is 
practised to a considerable extent. The fish are exported to the United 
States, the West Indian Islands and European countries. St. Johns, the 
capital, has a fine harbor and is wholly engaged in the fishing trade. 
There are no other towns of importance on the island. 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


QUESTIONS 

What portions of the United States have a climate similar to that of most 
of the Canadian provinces? 

Why is agriculture the principal industry of Canada? In what products does 
Canada compete with the United States in the markets of the world? 

What portions of Canada are now being rapidly developed? What has led 
to their development? 

What has given Montreal and Toronto their importance as commercial 
centers? 

What are Canada’s imports from the United States? What does she export 
to this country? 



CATHEDRAL, MEXICO CITY 




































Chapter II. 

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 

MEXICO. 


EXTENT 


Climate 


The inhabitants recognize 


POSITION Awn ^ e P u ^i° °f Mexico extends from the thirty- 

second to the fifteenth degree of north latitude. 
In area it is some larger than that part of the 
United States east of the Mississippi River. It is a long and narrow 
mountainous plateau, rising abruptly from each coast to a height 
of from 4000 to 8000 feet, and formed bv a continuation of the 
Rocky Mountains, which are here known as the Cordilleras. 
Some of the volcanic peaks have an altitude of nearly 20,000 feet. 

The location of Mexico would indicate a tropical 
climate, but this is greatly modified by the altitude. 

three climatic zones; the hot zone, 
which they call Tierra Calienta, extending from sea level to an 
altitude of 3000 feet; the temperate zone, Tierra Templada, 
extending from 3000 to 5000 feet; and the cold zone, Tierra 
Fria, having an altitude of from 5000 to 7000 feet and over. 
There are two seasons, the wet, extending from May to October, 
and the dry, during the remainder of the year. During the wet 
season, rain falls daily, but good drainage gives the temperate belt 
very healthful climate. The interior plateau and the northern 
portion of the western coast have but little rain. 

The agricultural products of the three zones are 
Resources characteristic of their respective climates. Along 
the coast and in the lower altitudes coffee, rubber, sugar-cane and 
tropical fruits are the staple products; in the temperate belt, 
cereals, especially corn, and fruits of the temperate climates are 

241 


242 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


cultivated. Corn is the most important crop, but Mexico has lost her 
former position among the corn-producing countries of the world. She 
was formerly fourth, but now she is surpassed by most of the countries 
of South America and Europe. Cacao is grown, and tobacco is 
an important crop, because of its excellent quality. Some cotton 
is raised, but not enough to supply the needs of the local mills. The 
forest products include cedar, oak, walnut, ebony, rosewood and ma¬ 
hogany. Sisal hemp, or henequin, is grown extensively in Yucatan, 
and is exported in large quantities. The northern part of the country 
and the high plateaus are well adapted to grazing, and quite a number 
of cattle and sheep are raised in these regions. 


The mineral resources are of the greatest importance. Mexico 
is the leading silver-producing country, her output being about one- 
third the world’s supply. Considerable gold, mercury, iron, copper, 
lead, and tin are also obtained. In most places the crudest methods 
of mining prevail, but capitalists from the United States have become 
interested in some of the leading mines and introduced modern methods. 
Building stone of excellent quality is abundant, and the Mexican onyx 
is highly prized for finishing interiors. 

Coal and asphalt have been found, and large oil fields yield a boun¬ 
tiful supply of petroleum. The wells are controlled by British and 
American capital. 


Inhabitants 


The inhabitants are Spaniards, Indians, and a mixed 
race, descendants from the intermarriage of the 
other two. The population numbers about 15,500,000. The Indians and 
Mexicans are engaged in agriculture and mining. There are but few 
manufactures, and these are either under the control of the Spaniards 
or Americans who have recently established them. Spanish is the 
prevailing language. 

The United States, Germany, and Great Britain 
take most of the foreign trade. Our share is not 
as large as that of the European countries. We import rubber, 


Commerce 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


243 


coffee, gold, and mining products, and export cotton goods, boots 

and shoes, machinery, hardware and tools, scientific apparatus, 
carriages and railway appliances. Our exports amount to about 
$48,309,000 a year, and our imports about $97,676,000. 

Transportation All the important cities are connected by 

railway and telegraph, and two trunk lines 
connect the country with the United States. The Tehuantepec 
Railway is the most important trunk line and connects the Atlantic 
and Pacific Oceans. It is under the management of English 
capitalists, and until the completion of the Panama Canal it was 
of great importance in shortening the trade route between the 
Atlantic and Pacific ports. There is a good coastwise trade on 
the Gulf. The leading ports are Tampico and Vera Cruz. Mazat- 
lan, Acapulco, San Bias, and Manzenillo are the important ports 
on the Pacific coast. Acapulco has an excellent harbor, but on 
account of lack of railway connection its trade is quite small. 
Mexico, the capital, is situated in the interior on a plateau 7000 
feet in altitude, and is a modern American city. 


Note .—The facts stated in this chapter apply to Mexico previous to 1911. 
From the overthrow of Madero in that year to the accession of Obregon to 
the presidency, Dec. 1, 1920, the country was the scene of one revolution after 
another, and all industries were practically suspended. During Carranza’s admin¬ 
istration there was some attempt to restore the country to its former degree of 
prosperity, but it met with little success. Under President Obregon’s wise rule 
the country is gradually regaining its normal condition. 


QUESTIONS 

How do you account for the great variety of products that can be produced 

in Mexico? 

Why are the industries and resources of the country so poorly developed? 
What railway connection does Mexico have with the United States? 

With what countries does Mexico carry on most of her foreign commerce? 



o 

a 

a 

cS 

y 
•<—< 
Sh 


O 


CO 

OJ 


a 


& 


CARIBBEAN AMERICA 

























CENTRAL AMERICA 


This is a narrow mountainous stretch of country reaching from 
Mexico to Panama. It comprises five small individual states: 
Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and 
the British Colony of Balize, sometimes called British Honduras. 
The entire area is about equal to that of the New England and 
Middle States. 

The country is low and unhealthful on the Caribbean Coast, 
but more elevated along the Pacific Coast. The elevated regions 
are comparatively healthful, and most of the people live among the 
highlands. The climate and products are wholly tropical. The 
inhabitants are Spaniards, native Indians, negroes and the descend¬ 
ants from these races. Most of the interior is unsettled. 

Owing chiefly to the extension of railway lines, the commerce 
of these states has improved since 1910. Central America now 
has over 1750 miles of railways, distributed as follows: Gautemala, 
613 miles; Honduras, 240 miles; Nicaragua, 200 miles; Salvador, 
264 miles. Costa Rica, 438 miles. In addition to this mileage 
Panama, which is not considered a Central American state, has 
248 miles. Coffee, hides, mahogany and tropical fruits are the 
chief exports. About one-half the fruit trade is with the United 
States. We send them cotton goods, tools, hardware, flour, and 
wine. The entire trade with the United States amounts to about 
$78,338,000 a year, of which $44,752,000 consists in exports and the 
balance in imports. 

There is great wealth in these little domains, consisting chiefly 
of agricultural products. 


245 



THE UNITED FRUIT COMPANY’S WIRELESS STATION AT PORT LIMON, COSTA RICA. 



























COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


247 


SALVADOR co ^ ee i n( ^ us try is first among the business 

interests of Salvador. In this country alone there 
are 166,039 acres in coffee, and the annual production is around 
75,000,000 pounds. Some efforts have been made to encourage 
the production of cotton, but with indifferent success. The trade 
of Salvador has been mostly with the United States, Germany, and 
France. There are many foreign investments in this country, 
mainly in timber, minerals, and railroads. 

HONDURAS ^is * s distinctly a cattle country, though this 
industry has never been developed to anything 
like the degree to which it may be. It is also wealthy in minerals. 
There are rich deposits of gold, platinum, silver, and copper, and a 
large sum of foreign money is invested in these mines. Of course, 
the bulk of the export trade is in fruit — bananas, cocoanuts, and 
so on. Social conditions in Honduras are well advanced. The 
systems of education and health are good. There are few children 
in Honduras of school age who have not had educational advantages. 

COSTA RICA Fruit and coffee constitute the bulk of the trade 

of Costa Rica. The United Fruit Company, 
formerly under the British flag, but in recent years transferred to 
the United States flag, has proved a great power in the development 
of Costa Rica. The company has from 40 to 60 vessels in con¬ 
stant operation in the Carribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, 
and by means of its wireless facilities keeps in touch with the 
whole fleet. There are railroads between the larger cities which 
pretty well traverse the entire country, one of them, 385 miles in 
length, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific sea-coasts of Costa Rica. 



yaramaru 

Dutch 


I Bogota 

C oj* O M B I A 


■A yen/US 


rBENCi 


Pemambuct. 


Vo de Janeiro 


Porto A/egI 


• Santiago 


Buenos Aires 


►■o tfpn tev>deo 


Ba/na Bianca 


* ELANDS 


Strait ct Magellan 


1/rf Arenas 


SOUTH AMERICA, SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL STEAMSHIP LINES CONNECTING 
THE CONTINENT WITH NORTH AMERICAN PORTS 











Chapter III. 


SOUTH AMERICA 


POSITION AND 
SURFACE 


With the exception of a few extreme points 
South America extends from the tenth parallel 
of north latitude to the fiftieth parallel of south 
latitude. Nearly all of the continent is in the Torrid or South 
Temperate Zones and its latitude would give it a tropical or a semi- 
tropical climate, but in the western part this is greatly modified by 
the mountains. 

In its general plan the surface of South America resemblfes 
that of North America, the great Andean Mountain system extend¬ 
ing the entire length of the continent on the western side. The 
average height of these mountains is greater than that of the Rocky 
Mountains, the ranges are nearer together, and the intervening 
plateaus are narrow. The Andes are nearer to the coast than even 
the Coast Ranges in North America, and their western descent is 
very steep, consequently the rivers flowing into the Pacific are few, 
small, and rapid, and are of little or no aid to commerce. The 
eastern slope is long and more gradual, merging into the great 
plains that extend to the Atlantic Coast. 

The eastern highlands are divided into two groups, the Guiana 
Highlands, between the Amazon and the Orinoco, and the Brazilian 
Highlands, south of the Amazon. Both groups consist of old moun¬ 
tains that have been worn down, so that their rounded summits 
resemble those of the Appalachians. 

The Guiana Highland is loftiest in the west, where the high¬ 
est summits have an altitude of 8000 feet or more. These descend 
by terraced slopes, forming on the north one side of the Orinoco 

249 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


250 

basin, while the other side is formed by the southern and eastern 
slope of the Andes. 

The Brazilian Highland reaches its greatest altitude near the 
tropic, where it is 8500 feet, with an average of from 4000 to 5000 
feet. The region is characterized by a large number of ranges 
of high hills and low mountains that have been worn down, the 
material thus removed forming the plateau at their base. 

The great Basin of the Amazon lies between the Guiana High¬ 
land on the north and the Brazilian Highland on the south, and ex¬ 
tends westward to the base of the Andes. The southern boundary 
is irregular, being formed by the divide which separates the tribu¬ 
taries flowing into the Parana and the La Plata. The tributaries 
of the Amazon from the south are all large, and nearly all have falls 
at about the middle of their course, which obstruct navigation. 

The basin of the La Plata is long and narrow, and consists of the 
lowlands formed by the flood plains about the mouth of the river, 
and the highlands surrounding this region of lowland and extend¬ 
ing westward to the Andes. The Amazon and La Plata, with their 
tributaries, form extensive systems of waterways that are of the 
greatest value to the region through which they flow. 

Climate of South America has a tropical climate, with 

two seasons, the rainy and the dry. The great alti¬ 
tude gives those portions of the plateau between their northern ex¬ 
tremity and the vicinity of the Tropic of Capricorn, a temperate 
climate; while some of the highest peaks are capped with snow. 
Most of this portion of the plateau is also arid. 

The Guiana Highland and the Orinoco basin have a warm tem¬ 
perate climate, and the highest temperature is reached during the 
northern summer, when the heat is so intense that the people for¬ 
sake the lowlands for the mountains. An abundance of rain falls 
during the rainy season. 

The basin of the Amazon is characterized by intense heat and 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


251 


heavy rainfall. These conditions account for the dense forests of 
the Amazon valley and other luxuriant vegetation of the region. 

The basin of the La Plata has a tropical and sub-tropical climate, 
with plenty of rain, until the extreme southern portion is reached. 
Here arid conditions are found, but there is sufficient moisture to 
afford excellent grazing regions. The southern portion of the 
continent has a temperate climate. 

The People Brazil was settled by the Portuguese, but all of 
the other South American States are of Spanish 
origin. Portuguese is the language of Brazil, and Spanish that of 
the other countries. Aside from these two nationalities there are 
but few white people on the continent. These are mostly Germans 
and Englishmen. Indians make up a large part of the population. 
There is also a third class, which comprises the descendants of the 
native races mixed with the Spaniards. In the tropical regions the 
people lack ambition and enterprise, but the inhabitants of Chile 
and Argentina are energetic and progressive. 
r f With the exception of the Guianas, which are, 

overnmen respectively, British, French, and Dutch colo¬ 
nies, all of the South American States have a republican form of 
government, patterned quite closely after that of the United States. 
For a long time after these countries gained their independence they 
were disturbed by political strife and frequent revolutions which pre¬ 
vented the development of their resources or the establishment of im¬ 
portant industries. These conditions have now passed and the South 
American states are making good progress. The World War gave the 
United States opportunity to increase her trade with these countries 
and between 1916 and 1920, this trade increased nearly 100 per cent. 
Great Britain, Germany, and France are the other leading countries 
engaged in this trade. From an industrial point of view these coun¬ 
tries can best be divided into two groups; the Andean countries and 
the countries of the lowlands. 


THE ANDEAN COUNTRIES. 



THE HARBOR, PANAMA 


PANAMA 

Panama is the most northerly country of South America, and 
one of the most recently formed republics of the world. It is a long, 
narrow strip of land, co-extensive with the Isthmus of Panama. 
Its length is about 460 miles, and its width varies from 31 to 70 miles. 
In area it is about equal to the State of Maine. The surface is 
high and rocky on the Pacific coast, and low and marshy on the 
Carribbean coast. The climate is tropical, damp, and unhealthful 
to all save the native people. The population is composed chiefly 
of mixed races which have descended from Spanish, Indian, and negro 
origin, and there are but few white people in the country. There 
are no manufactures, and the commerce, as far as the country itself 
is concerned, is of no importance. Panama, the capital, is the 
Pacific terminus of the Panama Railway, and has a population of 
about 25,000. It is the financial and commercial center of the 
country. The only other town worthy of mention is Colon at the 


252 







COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


253 


Caribbean terminus of the railway. This has a population of about 
3000, and at present is of considerable importance on account of its 
relation to the Panama Canal. 

The Panama Canal, from deep water in one ocean to deep water 
in the other, is about 50 miles long, but the canal proper, from the 
beginning of excavations on one coast to the end on the other, is 
approximately 41^ miles long. Its highest point, 85 feet above 
sea level, is reached by a flight of three locks at Gatun on the Atlantic 



PANAMA AND THE PANAMA CANAL 


side, and by one lock at Pedro Miguel, and a flight of two locks at 
Miraflores on the Pacific side. Each lock is 1000 feet long and 
110 feet wide. The canal varies in width at the surface from 300 to 
1000 feet, according to sections. The minimum depth is 41 feet. 
The first vessel passed through on August 14, 1915. The completion 
of the canal has changed a number of important sea routes and 
shortened the sailing distance from New York to San Francisco over 

7800 miles. In 1921, 2892 vessels passed through the canal. 




SCENE IN CARTAGENA 


COLOMBIA 

The United States of Colombia occupies the extreme north¬ 
western portion of the continent. It has an area of a little over 
480,000 square miles, and the population is about three and one- 
third millions. On account of the various altitudes, a country like 
Colombia has three climate zones; the tropical region of the lower 
altitudes, the temperate of the medium, and the cool of the high 
altitudes. The east coast is low and unhealthful. It is valuable 
for grazing purposes, and large numbers of cattle and sheep are 
raised. The plains and the mountains produce wheat, domestic 
animals, and some other agricultural products common to temperate 
regions. The tropical products are coffee, cacao, tobacco, vege¬ 
table ivory, copaiba, tolu, and rubber, all of which are gathered by 
the Indians. The mountains contain large deposits of gold and 
silver, and valuable salt mines are worked near Bogota. These are 
a government monoply, and considerable revenue is derived from 
them. 

Transportation facilities are very poor. There are a few short 
lines of railway extending from the coast towns inland, but the 
254 


















256 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


interior is entirely lacking in carriage roads, and goods are trans¬ 
ported by pack trains. The Magdalena and its tributaries are 
navigable for 600 miles to La Dorado, and steamers can ascend 
the Orinoco as far as Cabugaro, which is within about 200 miles of 
Bogota. Bogota is the capital, and Medellin is another important 
city, but they are so situated that commercial relations between 
them are pratically impossible. Barranquilla and Sabanilla, at the 



ALONG THE WATER FRONT NEAR THE MARKET, CARTAGENA 


mouth of the Magdalena, and Cartagena are the chief ports through 
which most of the foreign trade is carried on. This is of but little 
importance. The country exports hides, tallow, tobacco, and 
copaiba, and tolu to the United States; and gold and silver ore to 
Great Britain. The imports consist of textiles and other manufac¬ 
tures, most of which are obtained from Great Britain, while from the 
United States the country receives its supply of oils and petroleum. 











B 


70 ‘ 


50 ° 


E 


AO ° 



iueb i 


CARIBBEAN V* SEA 

C. 3 ilUN*V> ®* -CIJRACAO I 8 L. 

Santa Marta J _^S?^' ( Os_ * W-EsT INDIA Ts.aT<?eago isl. 
Barranouilla-r-'vl'' CCorijo -vtiargakii*^ « trinidad 
Caruieaac Valencia—rrLi!, (.utRjU^’^Fort of Spain ,rA 



c .0b* 

Buens venturi 


Esmerald, 

-Quit 


iuibdoto / 'T', 
rt»S? ! * U ' ' 

■ >•$ ^-/Bogota 

CoLoMB 

?‘V & Plata Uir ^ a 

/Ni 





.. , A 

-v^I rL * 1) 

i rar 

da- y'rt 


oEsmereld 


Mantafe 

J'llRi uiilirll. 


G.vf Uuaya'iv 
C. SUNOS, 

Pajtlk c fKS 
Jaen ? 

^ Pa^camay u\ : ^ 


• -.• ^MT COTO 
MT-CHIMBO 1 

et ai> 

jenca*- 

, * WAUitq Sj 

Antonio f r.ata'tvs 1 


Obidos 



PVT 


V*'- 


"A 


£u V. •■ n! /-v 


t ;,e River A mazo,i a 


EQUATOR 


< 


,,/T' K l/ J “ 

TruiilluVi^V ^X5?S° • / em 


f~7, g # W> 
A^An^onio'^j ) 




GA LAPAQOS 
ISLANDS 

rv— 






A' b 




sLortnzo 


do Beira 


L’iUlau . ,. 

LlM^, Jaujaj^V?--- 
Hualtcavelica o ~ Ay aru chj* 

PiscoW^Ica fi_^rApoleUaniha 

Chibiuibamte\ c> oAjaviri^Trmid'Sl \ oCai ™«>V 

\ 0 CoroiJOr<j JSta.Cru? 

Taciiaf BX)'L I iV/I ,-L ,, 

*S ni ji adc-a COrunA ASantiacc 0 o 
U <a?nWP<» v —-JSucre (Ch iti uit acal 


o Villa Bella or"Matta Grosso 

fcL<Uabi 


Pisagm 

lquique 


r> 


m«bal o 
Calm in’** 


V. 


30 


Oobij; 

Sail 

Antofagriiit; F 
BallenitaP 
Obis pal 

Port Oopi;i]'<r* r JtiSpiapo • <A 

Carrizafc^i®! ,, o ^Santiago 
f /.j n r atamarca. % \ 

Serena (Coqnimbo] /U Rioja 0 ^ 


tik u T ok‘ 


nunan 
*1 ° 



n jicif) V-Q^” 

santtvrem | H J 

Caclioeira Grande 


umjPscus 



i>V 


Ce»’ 


.T»l 


ffN 


/ \' 
n piin aj. 


;hanadf 



Aracaci^ 
A]>odi 


SAN « 0 QUE C. 
dXatal 


/ f Jlcpo °Porto Alegre 
Oeirasfc\ 


^or^-^^eJParahiba 

u 




BANXANAL (W 
) 8 . ANNA IS if 


' St.a. Kos; 


Oluien 


Y 

rrO'' 

/ Gayar.o 
//^Bo 
Piquiri 


S.'f'elix/o 




7 Maceio 


BaJpg/ 

,.P J^-objji'a l,Jhambujie Ser S i P edel Ke J 
) ^acb^eip~N^^{ a Biu (S. Salvador) 
Urubu j / 


Januaria 


nflt 



'etrbcinio 

^ C - e £ ( 5 hi l U i aCa k^~^P^ a ° Sai>ta y° Prala ViiVo Preto 



4 



Belmonte 

•itams^ I |"onoSeguro 
oDiamentiiia 


Curiti 


Cruz Alt, 


ajaes 
Jaci^hy 

tdcaba 
SiPaulo^ 


i ictona 


PetropSiSa > 


i Frio 


*4 


MT A Cl 

Valparniso 1 


i>l Ha xtioja 

c% Vt n 

\ jf 2 ACo 

cOr^idjA °^i n 


^lorquetar 


^ario 0 



\ /V 


/|£ ?0 


\ 


> Porto Aleere 


50 


•Ol.o 5 

Santiago fd' 1 ?'* 1 


n 


\ 



Constitucioi 

(onreprion 
Araueoy 

Valdiviajo 


chiloe tnu 

CHONOS ' 
ARCH^PKLAGOo ’ 

TAYTAO yENINSUL^i 

of Penas 


’alia 
c/>\ Poi 

:n 


Santa F^Condirdia’ 
Parana j jp^alto 

^‘■M-jKrtTrA 

Pavsandu 

EStjT^ 

La VlalA 

Bragado J D i lores - 


Cordoba^ 

Juan 

Mehdoza ^ v Jj*^^V| :i i ria 
icrua \ oSanXuis R<Kfi,rio 
oVilla de ^ler< 

iiiL -Buenos ai 


Bage . 


lio Ci/randc*(San Pedro do Sul) , 


A 

V 


gilltln 


I.UJ 



AzulsP 

P11ar„ 


Bahia Blanca 


EVIDEC 

C.S.bUPIA I 

It. tie la Plata 

C.S. ANTONIO 




Ch, 


^ Str.of Magellan 

STA. 1 NEZ lr 1 . 
AKCHlfELAGO OF 



G.uf S.Matiae 

^SAN josqr PENINSU' A 
TChubut 

G.of St. Georg, 

Port Desire (Deseadol \ 


SOUTH AMERICA 


\ HOSTE I?L^- 

TIERRA DHL FUEGjC 


i FALKLAND Iff(BR.) 

.virgins •i^^ tunle y 

f Magellan 
T1FRKA PEL FUEGO 

CjS.OIESO I 

state! isl. 


SCALE OF MILES 


0 100 200 300 400 500 600 


J The Georze F. Cram Co..Chicago. 
Longitude frest from. Greenwich// 


i0 


20 ; 


30 


A0 


50 


100 ' 


90 ' 


SO 


70 


60' 


50' 


E 


AO 


30 ' 


20 
















































































ECUADOR 


Ecuador is a little smaller than New Mexico and has a popu¬ 
lation of about 2,000,000, most of whom are Indians. The exports 
are cacao, coffee, sugar, Peruvian bark, ivory, nuts, and rubber. 
Cacao constitutes about three-fourths of the exports. The land 
is held in large estates and the laboring people are in a condition 
bordering on slavery. The most important article of manufacture 
is Panama hats. These are made from torquilla straw, which is 
the midrib of the leaf of the screw pine. The work is done almost 
wholly by Indians, and because dampness is essential to success 
most of the hats are made at night. 

The imports are food stuffs and manufactured textiles. The 
country has extensive mineral deposits, which, undoubtedly, are 
rich, but they have not yet been developed. The copper, gold 
and silver mines are worked to a limited extent. Transportation 
is exceedingly poor. Most of the goods are carried on pack ani¬ 
mals. A carriage road extends from Quito, the capital, to Guaya¬ 
quil, the leading seaport, a distance of 115 miles. Most of the 
foreign trade is with France and Great Britain. That with the 
United States amounts to about $5,000,000 a year. 

. PERU 

Peru is situated south of Ecuador, and lies almost wholly 
among the mountains, with a long desert sea-coast on the Pacific. 
Peru has an area of 722,461 square miles and a population estimated 
at about 4,500,000, more than one-half of whom are native Indians. 
Most of the country has a high altitude and a cool temperate climate. 
In the northern part, the eastern slope of the mountains is heavily 
timbered. As a whole, the country has but little rainfall. The 


257 





PLANTING SUGAR CANE, SANTO CLARO, PERU. (Showing Irrigation) 









COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


259 


leading agricultural products are cotton, sugar, coffee, cacao, and 
tobacco. The other products are cinchona, from which quinine is 
made; cacao and other medicinal plants, dye stuffs and rubber. The 
country has considerable good grazing land and many sheep. Llama 
and cattle are raised; from these wool, alpaca, and hides are ex¬ 
ported. 

Peru is rich in minerals, and mining is the leading industry. 
Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury compose the metals, 
and coal, salt, borax, sulphur, and petroleum the non-metals which 
are exported. The manufactures are straw hats, woolen fabrics, 
sugar, candles, soap, shoes, and a few other small articles. All 
manufacturing is on a small scale and in a crude state. Its purpose 
is to supply the local demand only. The country lacks capital, 
and means of transportation are still poor. There are about 1000 
miles of railway in operation. The Amazon and its tributaries 
afford good water routes for the eastern portion of the country, 
and this is of great advantage, as most of the trade is on the eastern 
side of the mountains. Lima, the capital, and Callao, the principal 
seaport, are connected by railway. Most of the foreign trade is 
with Great Britain and France, the United States having only a 
small portion. The country also has considerable trade with the 
surrounding South American States. 

BOLIVIA 

Bolivia, has an area of about 514,000 square miles, being 
nearly equal to Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas combined. 
The population is only two and a half million. Bolivia is wholly 
an inland country, and its only outlet to the sea is through one of the 
surrounding states. The country is rich in resources, but in a very 
backward condition. Agriculture is the most important industry, 
and the chief crops are coffee, rubber, and sugar. Cereals and vege¬ 
tables are grown on the tablelands, and cattle, sheep, and llamas 



BOLIVIAN ORE CARRIER 

(Photograph by William V. Alford) 






















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


261 


are raised in large numbers. The lowlands and plains are fertile, 
and many of them contain dense forests, from which chinchona bark 
and other valuable medicinal products and dye stuffs are obtained. 

Transportation is exceedingly poor. The plains afford good 
location for highways leading down the eastern slope. Three 
railways leading to the sea in Chile have been completed. A rail- 



MINING- TIN ORE IN BOLIVIA 

(Photo by George "W. Deane. Illustration used by courtesy of Pan American Union) 

Stone quimbalates were formerly used by the nat : ves in Bolivia for hand crushingor grindingtin ore. 
In nearly ail the tin mines of the country the antiquated stone crusher has been supplanted by modern 
power mills. 


way connects the country with the railway in Argentina, and 
La Paz, the chief city, is also connected with the seaport of 
Antofagasta in Chile. Sucre is the capital and city next in 
importance. Most of the trade is with the surrounding states. 
The exports are coffee, rubber, cacao, copper, silver, and tin, 
and the imports are manufactured clothing, textiles, food stuffs, 
hardware, and spirituous liquors. 








SHEEP IN PUNT A ARENAS 


CHILE 

Chile is the most important mountain state. It is long and 
narrow and has a coast line of over 2500 miles, extending southward 
from the Tropic of Capricorn. Its area is 290,000 square miles and 
it has a population of 3,642,000. Though having but a small 
proportion of fertile land this is so well cultivated that the country 
produces abundant crops of wheat, barley, and various other food 
stuffs of the temperate regions, and fruits are grown in sufficient 
quantities to supply the home market and also to furnish exports 
for the neighboring states of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. A great 
deal of the cultivated land is under irrigation. The uplands furnish 
excellent grazing and large numbers of sheep and cattle are raised. 
These furnish merino wool and hides and leather for export. 


262 





COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


263 . 


The mineral resources are by far the most important. Al¬ 
though the northern part of the country is a desert, it contains ex¬ 
tensive deposits of nitrate, or Chile saltpetre, which occurs in the 
form of a soft crystalline rock that is mined and exported to Europe 
and the United States, where it is ground and used as a fertilizer, and 
in the manufacture of certain chemical products. The next most 
valuable mineral product is copper, nearly all of which is exported 
to Great Britain. Coal is mined in the southern part of the country, 



A GLACIER, PUNTA ARENAS 


but since it is not of suitable quality for smelting purposes, consider¬ 
able is imported from Australia. 

The country is well supplied with railways, most of which are 
built and operated by the government. Santiago is the capital 
and Valparaiso is the chief seaport, and also the business and finan¬ 
cial center of the Pacific coast of South America. Previous to the 
outbreak of the European war in 1914, most of the forwarding trade 
was in the hands of British and German merchants, but since that 








,264 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES 


date the trade with the United States has more than doubled. The 
transcontinental line of railway connecting Valparaiso with Buenos 
Aires saves shipping goods around Cape Horn. The other im¬ 
portant towns are Concepcion, Talca, Chilian, Iquique, and Copiapo. 



FRIEG INDIANS, PUNTA ARENAS 


Punta Arenas, on the Strait of Magellan, is the southernmost town 
in America. 

The foreign trade is controlled by Great Britain, which has about 
two-thirds of it; Germany and France have most of the remainder. 
The United States supplies the country with a portion of its textiles, 
and also with lumber from Oregon and Washington, and with pe¬ 
troleum. Our imports are principally nitrate. 









THE LOWLAND COUNTRIES 


VENEZUELA 

Venezuela is the most northerly country bordering on the 
Atlantic. The area is 398,594 square miles. The most reliable 
estimates of the population placed the number of inhabitants in 
1915 at about 2,250,000. One-seventh of these are Indians. The 
country has a tropical climate, and is unhealthful except in the 
mountainous regions. The lowlands have a tropical vegetation, 
but the higher altitudes produce the plants of the temperate zone. 
The leading industries are agriculture, grazing, and the gathering 
of forest products. Coffee is the most important crop, and about 
200,000 acres are devoted to its cultivation. Cacao and sugar are 
grown in the lowlands, and cereals in the mountainous districts. 
The llanos are great plains covered with grass, which furnish pas¬ 
turage for herds of cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and swine. The 
mineral resources are important, and consist of gold, silver, copper, 
iron, sulphur, petroleum, asphalt, coal, salt, and kaolin, from which 
porcelain is made. 

Asphalt is a mineral pitch, or solid form of bitumen, and is 
derived from sources similar to those from which coal and petroleum 
have been formed. The lake on Trinidad is from eighteen to 
seventy-eight feet in depth, and is estimated to contain 6,000,000 
tons. 

A large lake of asphalt on the Island of Trinidad is under the 
management of American companies. Numerous large pools of 

265 


266 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


this mineral are also found along the neighboring coast. It is ex¬ 
tensively exported, and used in asphalt pavements. 

The country is poorly equipped with roads, and there are about 
550 miles of railway consisting of certain short lines that extend 
from the agricultural districts to ports on the Caribbean. Nearly 
all goods are transported by pack animals, except in the region of 
the Orinoco, which furnishes a good waterway for that portion of 



THE CACAO TREE, PODS ON THE TREE AND IN SECTIONS, AND THE BLOSSOM 

the interior through which it flows. Caracas, the capital, and 
Valentia, on the Caribbean, are the most important cities and are 
situated in the midst of a fertile and productive agricultural dis¬ 
trict. Maracaibo, Puerto, and Cabello are the principal seaports. 
The country lacks capital, and frequent uprisings and revolutions 
have nearly ruined its industries. 




COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


267 


The foreign trade is with the United States, Great Britain, 
France, Germany, and Spain. We furnish the Venezuelans with 
one-half of their imports, consisting of cotton fabrics, ironware, 
flour, and canned goods; and receive from them coffee, hides, 
rubber, and asphalt. 


GUIANA 

Guiana is divided into three colonies known respectively as 
British, French, and Dutch Guiana; these constitute the only 
colonial possessions in South America. In area the country is about 
equal to California and Maine. Fully one-half of the territory 
belongs to Great Britain, and the remainder is about equally di¬ 
vided between France and Holland. The climate is tropical, and 
unhealthful along the coast. Only small tracts of land are under 
cultivation, and these consist of narrow strips along the coast region, 
which are protected by dykes. Sugar-cane is the chief agricultural 
product, but the manufacture of beet sugar in the northern countries 
has greatly crippled the sugar industry in this part of the world. 
The country is rich in gold and diamonds, but the mines have not 
been extensively worked. Georgetown in British Guiana, Cayenne 
in French Guiana, and Parimaribo in Dutch Guiana are the capitals 
of the colonies and the principal towns. The leading exports are 
sugar, cacao, coffee, molasses, and rum; and the imports are manu¬ 
factured articles and food products. The principal trade is that 
with the mother countries, the United States having a small portion 
of it. Compared with the commerce of other countries that of 
Guiana is unimportant. A valuable diamond field has been discovered 
in British Guiana. 



SUBURB OF BOTAFOGA, PART OF THE PICTURESQUE HARBOR OF RIO JANEIRO, SUGAR LOAF MOUNTAIN IN 

THE BACKGROUND 









COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


271 


The Amazon Basin includes more than half the country, and 
supports the most dense and extensive tropical forests in the world. 
At present the great product of the forest is rubber, of which it 
supplies about one-sixth of the world’s crop. This is gathered 
by the Indians, who live in a half civilized state, and whose crude 



ONE OF THE FLOATING DOCKS AT VAL DE CAEN, PARA 

methods have greatly damaged many of the rubber trees. The 
Amazon crop also includes much of that gathered from the neigh¬ 
boring states. Most of it is shipped from Para, which is the great¬ 
est rubber port in the world. These forests also contain an in¬ 
exhaustible supply of hard and soft woods suitable for all sorts 













MAP OF BRAZIL SHOWING LOCATION OF THE PRINCIPAL PORTS 

(1) Porto Velho, 18C0 ni les ui the Amazon and Madeira rivers; (2) Manoas, important rubber 
metropolis; (3) Para; (4) Recife.; (5) Bahia; (6) Rio de Janeiro; (7) Santos; (8) Corumba, 1800 
miles from the sea at Montevideo. 



























DRYING COFFEE BERRIES 


BRAZIL 

The Republic of Brazil is nearly as large as the United States, 
including Alaska, and occupies about one-half of the continent. It 
extends from the fifth parallel of north latitude to the thirty-third 
parallel of south latitude. The Equator crosses the northern part, 
and with the exception of the extreme southern portion, which is in 
the temperate zone, the country has a tropical climate. The popu¬ 
lation in 1915 was estimated at twenty-six and a half millions. 
It consists of Portuguese, negroes, native Indians, and mixed races 
that have descended from these, together with a few Europeans and 
Americans. The country is naturally divided into three productive 
districts: the Amazon Basin, the Middle Coast Region, and the 
Southern Coas Region. Most of the interior is still a vast wilder¬ 
ness. 

269 









272 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTR 


of cabinet and building purposes, but the time for developing the 
lumbering industry is not yet ripe. 

The leading products of the middle coast region are cotton 
and sugar-cane, and of the southern coast region and interior, 
coffee. Rice, black beans, and manioc are the most important food 



products; yams, sweet potatoes, tropical fruits, and maize are 
also grown. Brazil nuts grow wild, and are exported in large 
quantities. These nuts grow in large spherical pods, containing 
24 each. The pods are broken open and the nuts separated before 
placing them on the market. 





COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


273 


Coffee is the most important agricultural product, and Brazil 
produces more than four-fifths of the world’s supply. It is the seed 
of an evergreen shrub, which, when growing freely, reaches a height 
of from 10 to 20 feet. Under cultivation, the tree is kept cut down 



LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS, RR VZTL 

(Courtesy of Pan American Union) 


to 7 or 8 feet, and the branches bend down nearly to the ground. 
The leaves are about 5 inches long, slender, and have a bright green, 
glossy surface. The flowers appear in the axils of the- leaves, 
and are small and pure white. The fruit is a two-celled berry, 
of about the size and appearance of a cherry; when ripe, it is of a 


















AVENUE CENTRAL, RIO JANEIRO 



















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


275 


dark red color. Each cell contains a seed which forms the coffee 
nib or bean. The orchards are kept well tilled and free from weeds. 
When the fruit is ripe, cloths are spread under the trees and they 
are shaken, which causes the berries to fall. The berries are dried 
on mats in the open air, then crushed between rollers to free the 
seeds from the husk. After a second drying in the sun, the seeds 
are winnowed, then packed in sacks ready for shipping. The average 



AVENUES OF PALM TREES, AVENIDA DO MANGUE, RIO JANEIRO 


yield is about a pound to a tree, but the best trees often yield three 
cj four pounds. 

The great mineral region extends along the Bolivian border 
to Matto Grosso, and eastward to the Rio Grande du Sul. Gold, 
silver, diamonds, and other precious stones, are found in this region. 
Before the discovery of the diamond mines in South Africa, those 
of Brazil were the richest in the world. Iron, copper, and coal are 
also found in paying quantities, but they have not been worked. 

















276 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Manufactures are still in a primitive state, but foreign capital, 
principally from Germany, is invading the country and establishing 
new industries. The resources of Brazil are more extensive than 
those of any other South American country, and these establish¬ 
ments will, undoubtedly, continue to increase in size and number. 



MUNICIPAL THEATRE OR OPERA HOUSE, RIO JANEIRO 

The Amazon and Parana, with their tributaries, furnish a 
series of waterways leading to all ports of the interior. These 
rivers are of the greatest commercial importance, since without 
them it would be impossible to transport the rubber and other 
forest products to the coast. The roads are generally poor, but 
there are over 16,000 miles of railway in operation, consisting 
principally of short lines extending from the plateau to the nearest 










COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


277 


seaport. Most of the railways are owned by the government, and 
leased to private corporations. Rio Janeiro is the largest railway 
center. 

The transportation facilities are still entirely inadequate to the 
demands made upon them, and with the extension of railway lines 
and the construction of good roads, the interior of the country 
could be profitably developed, and this would lead to great increase 
in production. Rio Janeiro is the capital and commercial center. 
It is the second largest city of the continent, having a population 
of about 962,000. It has an excellent harbor and steamer connec¬ 
tions with the leading ports of the United States and Europe. Para, 
at the mouth of the Amazon, has an extensive trade in rubber. 
Pernambuco is an important sugar, coffee, and cotton market. 
Porte Allegre is the seaport for the German colonists, and Bahia 
has a large trade in cotton, sugar, and tobacco. Santos is the sea¬ 
port of the State of Sao Paulo, and the largest coffee-exporting 
center in the world. 

The annual foreign commerce amounts to about $403,260,000, 
and it is divided between Great Britain, Germany, France, the 
United States, and a few other countries. The leading export is 
coffee, which is by far the most important product of the country, 
and the one from which the greatest amount of revenue is derived. 
The annual export is about 600,000,000 pounds and nearly the 
entire crop is taken by the United States. Rubber is second in 
importance, and in the production of this, Brazil formerly led the 
world. Other exports are hides, tallow, cotton, and Brazil nuts. 
Over one-half the foreign commerce is with the United States. 
The yearly exports to this country amount to about $132,600,000, 
and our exports to Brazil amount to about $41,200,000. They 
consist chiefly of flour, cotton goods, machinery, hardware, iron 
and steel goods, and petroleum. There are regular lines of steam¬ 
ers plying between the United States and the most important 
Brazilian ports. 








GOVERNMENT HOUSE, LA. PLATA, ARGENTINA 


ARGENTINA 

Argentina, or the Argentine Republic, occupies the southern 
half of the eastern part of South America. It is about one-half the 
size of the United States, and has a population of about 7,980,000. 
A small section in the northern part has a tropical climate, but with 
this exception the entire country lies within the south temperate 
zone. The plains in the north have a tropical climate and 
vegetation; those of the central portions have a warm and 
temperate climate, while the plains of the south have a colder 


279 

























280 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


climate. The mountainous region, which extends along the entire 
western part of the country, is cooler than other portions in the same 
latitude. The climate varies here with the altitude and the season 
of the year. Argentina is almost entirely one vast fertile plain, and 
is especially adapted to stock raising and growing cereals. It has 
become one of the largest wool producing countries of the world, and 
is now competing in the markets of Europe, with Russia and the 
United States, in the sale of wheat and dressed meat. The annual 
yield of wheat is now about 180,000,000 bushels, and over two-thirds 
of it is exported. Flax, corn, and sugar-cane are also successfully 
grown, as are various kinds of fruits suitable to the temperate and 
semi-tropical latitudes. Grape culture and the manufacture of 
wine are also becoming important industries. 

The country is well supplied with minerals. Gold, silver, and 
copper ores are abundant in the mountain districts and gold is also 
found along the coast as far south as Tierra del Fuego. Coal, 
principally lignite, petroleum, sulphur, borax, nitrates, salt, and 
iron are found in sufficient quantities to be profitably mined. The 
foot hills and lower portions of the mountains are covered with ex¬ 
tensive forests that yield timber and other valuable products. 

Manufacturing is not extensive. What there is consists of the 
manufacture of flour and wine and in distilling and brewing. Nearly 
all of the manufactured products are imported. Argentina is better 
supplied with railways than the other South American countries, and 
the system is being continually extended. The completion of the 
transcontinental railway, from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso in 
Chile, was one of the most important commercial enterprises of the 
entire continent, and is found to be of great value to both countries. 
Buenos Aires, on the right bank of the La Plata, is the capital, 
and financial and commercial center. It is the largest and most im¬ 
portant city of South America. In its buildings, its streets, and its 
public utilities it is a thoroughly modern city, and far in advance 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


281 . 

of any other city of the continent. It has a large trade with 
European countries, and the United States. Other important 
cities are Rosario, Santa Fe, Parana, and Cordova, each of which 
has a good market for the surrounding farming regions. 

The country has a growing and valuable foreign trade. The 
most important exports are: wool, hides, skins, corn, preserved 
meats, domestic animals, flax, tallow and fat, and wheat. Mutton is 
frozen and exported to Europe in refrigerator ships, while beef is 
jerked, or dried, and exported in this form. The imports are agri¬ 
cultural implements, textiles, boots and shoes, and clothing. The 
trade is carried on with Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, 
United States, and Italy. The exports to this country are confined 
almost entirely to cattle products and wool, while we send to them 
agricultural implements, iron and steel goods, oils, cotton goods, 
and wood and its manufactures. Our exports to Argentina amount 
to about $68,000,000, and our trade with Argentina as well as that 
with other South American countries is rapidly increasing. For 
the purpose of stimulating this trade several of the large banks in 
the United States have established branches in Buenos Aires and 
other South American cities. 

Argentina is the most progressive of the South American coun¬ 
tries. It has ample resources, a fertile soil, and a temperate climate. 
Its inhabitants are energetic and progressive, and the government 
is stable and well disposed towards all lines of industry. During 
the last few years a large number of immigrants from Southern 
Europe have entered the country. With the addition of necessary 
capital to develop its resources, this Republic is in a fair way to 
become a strong rival of the United States in the markets of Europe. 



PLAZA. DE LA INDEPENDENCE, MONTEVIDEO 


URUGUAY 

Uruguay is a small country situated on the opposite side of 
the La Plata from Argentina. It has a large foreign population, 
and is in excellent financial condition. The principal industry is 
stock raising, and much attention has been given to improved 
breeding, by the introduction of European stock. The scientific 
methods pursued have made this little state one of the foremost 
cattle and sheep countries of the world. The value of the animal 
products exported is about $70,000,000 a year. The soil is fertile; 
wheat and other cereals are raised, and some wheat is exported. 
Montevideo is the capital and most important city. The exports 
go to France and Argentina, and most of the imports are textiles and 
machinery, which are supplied by Great Britain and the United 
States. 


282 










PARAGUAY 


Paraguay is a small interior state to the north of Argentina. 
Most of its surface is covered with dense forests. The soil is fertile, 
and the climate is suitable for the growth of wheat and other cereals, 
but owing to the lack of transportation facilities, scarcely any of 
the resources have been developed. Sugar and mate, or Paraguay 
tea, are the only crops exported and these are of but little value 
iVsuncion is the capital and chief city. 


QUESTIONS 

What effect do the Andes have upon the products and industries of South 
America? 

What interests do the United States hold in Panama? What is the present 
condition of the Panama Canal? 

Why do the Andean countries have so little commerce? 

What conditions have made Chile the most prominent of these countries? 

Which of the South American countries the most closely resembles the 
United States in climate and products? In what does this country compete with 
the United States in the markets of the world? 

With what South American country do we have the largest trade? Why? 
Why do European countries have a larger trade than the United States with South 
America? 

What has caused the United States to take so much interest in Venzuelan 
affairs? 

How do you account for the lack of manufactures in South America? 


283 



THE HARBOR, HAVANA 











Chapter IY. 


THE WEST INDIES. 

Cuba and Hayti have independent governments, the latter 
being divided into the states of Hayti and San Domingo, but all 
the other islands are colonies of Europe. 

Cuba, the largest of the West Indies, has a length of 
CUBA m p eSj alK j a breadth ranging from 25 to 130 miles. 

In area it is about equal to Pennsylvania, and has a population 
of about two and a half millions, nearly equally divided between 
whites and negroes. Most of the whites are Spaniards, and 
Spanish is the language of the island. 

The surface is divided into three distinct areas ; the mountainous 
region occupying the eastern part, a central plain with scattered 
hills, and the mountainous region in the western part, which has a 
mountain axis whose slopes descend to the valleys. The coast is 
irregular and furnishes numerous good harbors. There are a num¬ 
ber of rivers on the island, but they are short and of but little 
commercial value. The soil is fertile, and rainfall is abundant. 

Agriculture is the leading industry, and sugar 
Agriculture constitutes the principal crop, Cuba leading the 

world in the out-put of cane-sugar. The next crop in impor¬ 
tance is tobacco, which is grown with a greater margin of profit than 
sugar, and is exported in large quantities. Cuban tobacco is of the 
best quality, and commands the highest prices in all markets. For 
this reason tobacco from other countries is frequently shipped to 
the island and reshipped as the Cuban product. 

The forests contain a large quantity of valu- 
Other Resources a bl e timber, and iron ore, copper, manga- 

285 


286 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


nese, asphalt and salt are found in sufficient quantities to admit of 
profitable working. Considerable iron ore is now mined and 
shipped to the United States since it is especial!} 7, valuable in the 
manufacture of steel. 


Manufactures are limited almost entirely to 
Manufactures c jg ars an d other products of tobacco. 

The oppressive Spanish rule and the war for independence 
destroyed most of the plantations and ruined all the industries, 
but with the aid of this country a new beginning has been made. 
An independent government, republican in form, was organized in 
1902, with Tomas Estrada Palma as president, but after four years 
the United States was obliged to intervene and settle internal 
strife. The foreign relations of the Republic are subject to the 
control of the United States. Provisions for paying up the 
national debt have been made, a good system of schools, estab¬ 
lished while under the control of the United States, is maintained, 
and railways and highways are being extended. 

Havana, the capital and chief city, is situated on the 
north coast, and is a convenient port of call for vessels 
crossing the Atlantic. It is the commercial and financial center of 
the West Indies, the largest sugar market in the world, and the 
third city in the Western Hemisphere in foreign commerce. Its 
population is 359,200. The other important cities are Cardenas 
and Matanzas on the northern coast, and Santiago de Cuba and 
Cinfuegos on the southern coast. All these are connected with 
Havana by railway and telegraph and Havana has cable connection 
with the United States. 

Nearly all the foreign trade is with the United 
Commerce States. Sugar and tobacco constitute the principal 
exports, but others of some importance are iron ore, honey, wax, 
bides and rum. The trade with the United States amounts to 
about $1,460,000,000 a year, of which $643,000,000 is exports, 


Cities 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


287 


SAN DOMINGO 


OTHER ISLANDS 


and the balance imports, consisting of agricultural implements, 
cotton goods, boots and shoes, hardware, machinery, and vehicles. 

This island is divided between the negro re¬ 
publics of Hayti and San Domingo. The 
former has been fairly prosperous, but rebellions and revolutions 
in the latter have completely destroyed all industries and hindered 
civilization. In 1906 the financial affairs were placed under con¬ 
trol of the United States until the foreign debt is paid. 

The most valuable of the other islands are 
Jamaica and the Bahamas, both belonging 
to Great Britain. To the eastward of these lie the small group of 
the Danish West Indies purchased by the United States in 1917 and 
named the Virgin Islands, (see page 256), and the Virginian group; 
the Leeward Islands, the French Islands of Gaudeloupe and Mar¬ 
tinique; the Windward Islands, including St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and 
Grenada; and the Barbadoes. All raise pineapples and other 
tropical fruits, and have more or less trade with the United States, 
but the larger part of the trade is with the respective home coun¬ 
tries. Kingston on Jamaica is, next to Havana, the most important 
city of the West Indies. 


QUESTIONS 

What commercial advantage does Cuba have over the other West Indies? 
What are the most important products of Jamaica? 

Why have Hayti and San*Domingo such a limited trade? 

How has annexation to the United States helped Porto Rico? 



55 

O 

P 

55 

O 

tJ 


BILKTNGSGATE MARKET. ON THE THAMES, 


























Chapter V 

THE UNITED KINGDOM 


LOCATION 


The United Kingdom embraces England, Scot- 


POLITICAL DIVISIONS 


land, Ireland and Wales. The British Empire 
includes the United Kingdom and all of her colonies. Tbe 
area of the United Kingdom is about 121,000 square miles, or a 
little more than three times that of the state of Ohio. Its popula¬ 
tion is about 41,000,000, less than half that of the United States. The 
area of the British Empire extends over 11,500,000 square miles, 
and includes one-fifth of the land area and nearly one-fourth 
of the population of the globe. 

The important political divisions of the 
United Kingdom are: England, which 
is a little larger than New York; Wales, about the size of New 
Jersey; Scotland, about the size of South Carolina; and Ireland, 
which is but little smaller than Maine. England is the largest and 
contains three-fourths of the population of the Isles. 

The location of the British Isles is extremely 
favorable for agriculture. Being in the path 
of the warm currents and warm winds of the North Atlan¬ 
tic, they have a temperate climate, with an abundance of 
rainfall, while their high latitude gives them long days dur¬ 
ing the summer season, and the large bodies of water sur¬ 
rounding them prevent sudden changes of temperature. All 
these conditions are favorable to the growing of crops. In the 
lowlands the soil is exceedingly fertile and it is remarkably well 
tilled. Hay, wheat and vegetatables are the leading crops. The 
yield per acre in each is about double that secured in the United 

289 


AGRICULTURE 


290 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


States. Much of the land is held in large estates, which are 
divided into small farms that are kept in a high state of cultivation 
by the method of intensive farming, similar to that used by the 
truck gardeners near large cities in the United States, and almost 
universally practised. On the highlands and among the mountains, 
cattle and sheep are raised in large numbers, sheep being of special 
importance in Scotland. 

Through years of careful breeding, the English farmers have 
attained the distinction of raising the finest cattle and sheep in 
the world. The cattle in the North are raised especially for beef, 
while those in the South are adapted to dairy purposes. Many 
of these breeds, such as Durhams or Short Horn, the Angus, 
the Ayrshires, Jerseys and Alderneys, have been imported to the 
United States, where they have supplanted nearly all of the older 
and less valuable breeds. The sheep produce the best quality of 
coarse and medium wool. Some portions of the Islands, especially 
Ireland, are devoted to the growing of flax. 

All lines of agriculture are conducted on a scientific basis and 


the best possible results are obtained, but the agricultural products 
of the Kingdom fall far short of supplying the needs of the popula¬ 
tion and large quantities of food stuffs and raw material have to be 
imported. 


Fisheries 


The fisheries are of considerable importance and 
occupy a good proportion of the inhabitants living 
along the coast in the northern part of the islands. Large quan¬ 
tities of herring are salted and exported, and fish of every variety 
supply the home markets. 

The abundance of iron and coal in England 

Mineral Resources c 

adapts that country to the manufacture of 

iron and steel products. Coal is found all the way from Southern 
Scotland to the Bristol Channel near the southern coast. Ex¬ 
tensive deposits of iron are also found in the old worn-down 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY* 


291 


mountains adjacent to the coal fields. Tin and copper occur in 
considerable quantities, but the manufacturing industries require 
more of these metals than can be supplied from the home mines, and 
large quantities of each are imported. The coal supply, however, 
exceeds the home demand, and some coal is exported to the other 
countries of Europe. 


% 


The peculiar advantages afforded for the manu- 

Manufactures n , ... • , . , , n ,. , , 

tacture ot iron and steel and all articles made 

from them, have, until within a few years, enabled England to lead 
the world in the manufacture of iron and steel goods. The damp 
climate is especially adapted to the manufacture of textiles, because 
most fibers are more successfully worked in a humid atmosphere. 
These conditions, combined with the intelligence and genius of the 
English people, have for many years made England one of the 
leading manufacturing countries of the world. 

Four inventions which have revolutionized the leading indus¬ 


tries of the world are due to the ingenuity of Englishmen. These 
are the power-loom by Edward Cartwright, the steam engine by 
James Watt, the locomotive by Stephenson and the Bessemer 
process of the making of steel by Sir Henry Bessemer. Stephen¬ 
son was not the original inventor of the locomotive, but he was the 
first to construct a practical road machine of this sort, and for this 
reason he is considered as the father of the steam railway. 

The great manufacturing region is in the northern and western 
part of England. In the northwestern section of this district, the 
great cotton and woolen factories are found. Manchester leads the 
world in the manufacture of cotton goods and Leeds is the most 
important center in the woolen industry. England manufactures 
more textiles than any other country ; her combined textile indus¬ 
tries give employment to more than 5,000,000 people, and the 
products of her mills are found in all countries of the world. 

The metal industries are next in importance to the manufacture 



CHEAPS1DE, LONDON 























COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


293 


of textiles. In these iron and steel lead. Birmingham is the 
center of the iron industry and Sheffield is noted for its cutlery and 
tools. The abundance of iron and coal has also made ship-building 
an important occupation and some of the largest ship-yards in 
the world are found at Glasgow, where the majority of steamships 
sailing under all flags except the American, are constructed. These 
are the great manufacturing industries, but nearly all others, to a 
greater or less extent, are represented in the English workshops, 
there being scarcely an article in use among civilized people that 
is not made in the country. For many years England was the 
leading manufacturing country of the world, but she is now sur¬ 
passed by the United States. 

Cities Except in the northern part of Scotland, and some por¬ 
tions of Ireland, the country is densely populated. In 
England alone there are thirteen cities each having a population of 
more than 200,000. To this number must be added Glasgow and 
Edinburgh in Scotland, and Dublin and Belfast in Ireland. Most 
of the cities of the kingdom own their public utilities, such as lights, 
water-works, and street railways, and have attained a wide reputa¬ 
tion for the excellent management and sound financial condition of 
these enterprises. 

London, the capital, is the commercial and financial center 
of the empire and of the world. The area of Greater London 
is 693 square miles, or over one-half the area of the state of Rhode 
Island. In 1921 the population, including the metropolitan 
and police districts, w T as 7,476,168, which was equal to about two- 
thirds the population of the state of New York, including New 
York City. The city has grown at almost the head of tide-water 
of the Thames, whose broad estuary opens towards the rich lands 
of the continent. This location gives London great advantage as 
a “half way” station for the exchange of the products of the nations, 
and for centuries it has been the leading market of the world. 



A VIEW IN THE DOCKS, LIVERPOOL 



















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


London is the center of the railway systems of the kingdom, as 
well as the focal point of many ocean routes, but the largest ocean 
liners anchor about twenty miles down the river on account of 
shallow water. 

Liverpool is one of the most' important seaports of Europe. 
It is the port through which passes nearly all the trade between the 
United Kingdom and the United States, Canada and other Ameri- 
can countries. It has an extensive system of docks and is 
connected with Manchester by ship canal. The Cunard and White 
Star Steamship lines have their terminus here. Southampton is 
also an important port for American trade. Manchester has been 
made a seaport by the construction of its magnificent ship canal, 
which admits the largest vessels, and has its banks lined with 
wharves. Glasgow is noted for its great ship-building and iron 
and steel industries, and Queenstown is the port of call for many 

trans-Atlantic steamers. 

The transportation facilities of the Kingdom 
Transportation are not sur p a ssed by those of any other coun¬ 
try. Excellent carriage roads extend everywhere, and the numer¬ 
ous railways join all towns with important centers ol trade, and 
these with the great commercial and industrial centers. The rail¬ 
ways are of the highest order of excellence, the best of mail, tele¬ 
graph and telephone services are also maintained, and ocean cables 

extend to all parts of the world. 

The British Isles are situated in the center of the 
Commerce j an( j masses G f the Northern Hemisphere. Com¬ 
mercially, this is a great advantage. Moreover, their small area 
places nearly every important manufacturing and commercial town 
within 50 miles of the sea. And,-in addition to these local advan¬ 
tages, the British Empire has colonies in all parts of the world, 
with each of which most favorable trade relations are sustained. 
These conditions have made the United Kingdom the greatest com- 


296 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


mercial and carrying nation of the world. The British merchant 
marine exceeds that of any other country. Before the World War 
it had nearly three times the tonnage of the merchant marine of the 
United States, and more than five times that of any other European 
country. Her merchant ships are a great source of wealth to Great 
Britain, since they enable her to do a large part of the carrying 
business of other nations, and a valuable revenue is derived from this 
carrying trade. British ships are found in every important port of 
the world. 

Commerce is carried on with nearly all nations, but the United 
States, France, Germany, Netherlands and Belgium, in the order 
named, have the largest trade. The imports are foodstuffs and raw 
material for use in manufacturing. For this reason Great Britain 
has for many years been a free trade country, since, to place duties 
upon such imports would simply increase the cost of living, and cause 
hardship to the people. 

The exports are manufactures and coal. English textiles are 
found in all lands and English hardware, cutlery, and machinery are 
exported to the British colonies and many of the countries of Europe 
and Asia. In addition to this, innumerable small wares, such as 
scientific instruments, pens, needles and pins, and others, that in 
the aggregate amount to a large sum, are sent to nearly all countries 
with which trade relations are sustained. The whole amounts 
to about two and a half billion dollars, one-fourth of which comes 
from the colonies, one-fifth from the United States, about one-tenth 
from France and the balance from other countries. 

The imports from the United States are wheat, flour, preserved 
meat, beef cattle, cotton, and electrical machinery. The exports to 
this country consist of textiles and other manufactures. The annual 
trade with the United States amounts to $2,348,880,000, of which 
$1,825,000,000 is in imports from this country, and the balance is in 
exports. 



Copyright, 1906, by Georg Thorne-Thomstn 














COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


297 


QUESTIONS 

What made England for a long time the leading manufacturing country 
of the world? 

How do you account for the number of large cities in England and Scotland? 
Why is the northern portion of Scotland sparsely populated? 

What has given London its prominence as a financial and a commercial 
center? What city in the United States does it resemble in these respects? 

What conditions have made Liverpool such an important seaport? 

What natural advantages have aided in extending the commerce of the 
United Kingdom? 

Why is such a large proportion of the foreign commerce carried on with the 
United States? 



THE DOCKS, HAMBURG 



































Chapter VI 


GERMANY 


LOCATION Germany is in the heart of Europe. It adjoins Poland 
on the east, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Switzerland 
on the south, France and Belgium on the west and Netherlands, Den¬ 
mark and the Baltic Sea on the north. Before the war its area was 
about 262,000 square miles and its population about 70,000,000. By 
treaty of Versailles, Germany was required to cede some of her 
territory to surrounding nations, and her area has been reduced to 
170,826 square miles and her population to 61,000,000. In the south 
the land is high and often mountainous, and the hill country prevails 
until the plains of Prussia are reached. These occupy the entire 
northern half of the country. The country has a temperate climate. 

. Agriculture is second in importance to manu- 

grieu ure f ac ^- ures anc j ^ one 0 f the leading industries, 

engaging the attention of two-fifths of the people. Though in many 
localities the soil is naturally poor, yet owing to the great care 
taken with every little patch of ground and the skill with which the 
Germans manage, abundant crops are raised. In the southern and 
central parts of the country, rye, hops, grapes, wheat, barley and 
tobacco are raised, and the Rhine Valley is one of the largest wine- 
producing regions in the world. On the plains of Prussia, sugar- 
beets, rye, oats, and tobacco are raised. The sugar-beet is one of 
the most important crops and Germany was the leading country in 
the production of beet-sugar, its output being about one-fourth of 
the world’s supply. Potatoes are also important. But none of 
these crops is sufficient to supply the country with food and the 
balance has to be imported. Cattle and hogs are raised in some 

299 



ALTMARKET. DRESDEN 


























COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


301 


Mineral Resources 


sections and where grazing is good, dairy products are of consider¬ 
able value. 

Forests cover one-fourth of the area of the country, and yield 
a good supply of timber and other useful products. All forests are 
under government supervision and their wise management prevents 
waste or destruction. A tree cannot be cut unless another is 
planted, so that the supply of timber does not diminish. 

Germany is rich in minerals. Silver, lead 
and copper ores are found in the mountains 
of Prussia, extending from Aachen on the west to upper Silesia on 
the east. Coal and iron occur in the Rhine Highlands, especially in 
the Ruhr Valley in the neighborhood of Aachen, where they be¬ 
come continuous with the coal fields of Belgium. Germany pro¬ 
duces more coal and iron than any other country on the continent. 
She also leads the European countries in her output of silver. 
Zinc occurs in large quantities, copper is mined to a limited extent 
and most of the lithograph stone comes from Bavaria. 

As a manufacturing country Germany ranked 
third, being exceeded by the United States and 
the United Kingdom. Textiles and iron and steel goods are the 
leading products. These industries are principally located in the 
iron and coal regions of the south and southwest. At Essen are 
the Krupp Iron Works. Here were cast most of the large cannon 
for Germany, and here also is made much of the machinery for the 
largest ocean steamers; other heavy iron and steel work is also 
turned out in abundance. 

All the important rivers are navigable, and 

Transportation , A , ,, i , 

^ are connected with each other by canals. 

Other canals also connect with the important rivers of France, 
Russia and Austria-Hungary, so that the inland water trans¬ 
portation is ample and cheap. Railways connect all towns of 
importance, and, in addition, important trunk lines lead to the 


Manufactures 



FRIEDRECKSTRASSE, BERLIN 

















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


303 


prominent trade centers of all surrounding countries. Over 32,000 
miles of railway are in operation, and the railway system of Germany 
is second only to that of the United States. The Baltic and the North 
Seas have 700 miles of coast, and the construction of the Kaiser 
Wilhelm Canal (see page 29) across the Peninsula of Schleswig- 
Holstein is of great advantage to commerce on the Baltic, since it 
saves the long and stormy passage of the Straits between Denmark 
and Scandinavia. 


Cities 


Berlin, the capital, is one of the few cities having over a 


million inhabitants. It is an important industrial center 
and the leading financial center of Germany. It was formerly one of 
the most important financial centers of the world. Many of the 
leading railways converge here. Hamburg, at the mouth of the Elbe, 
has extensive docks, and was the most important seaport on the con¬ 
tinent. It received all the American trade. Dresden is the center 
of the railway system of Saxony, and also has steamer connections 

with most of the leading ports of Europe. It is likewise an important 

« 

manufacturing center. Konigsberg is an important Baltic port. Breslau 
receives most of the raw material of Eastern Europe. Settin and Kiel 
have large shipyards where many of the finest German ships are built. 

Early in 1919 the Imperial German Government was suc¬ 
ceeded by the German Republic. The new constitution 
Conditions provides for a central legislative body known as the 
National Assembly, and for legislative bodies in each state. Full 
suffrage is granted all men and women over twenty years of age, and 
members of all legislative bodies are chosen by a direct vote of the 
people. The president is chosen by the National Assembly. 

During the war, Germany succeeded in keeping the enemy from 
crossing her borders, consequently she escaped the devastation suffered 
by other countries. However, her resources were so severely taxed 
to keep her large army in the field and she lost so many of her most 
active men, that all her industries were badly crippled. Nevertheless, 
the people courageously set to work to restore their fields and fac- 


Present 


304 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


tories to their former state of prosperity. In 1919 and 1920 good 
crops of wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes and sugar beets were raised 
and some manufactures were exported. It is probable that within a 
few years Germany’s manufactures and commerce will be restored 
to their former position among the nations. Up to Jan. 1, 1921, no 
statistics of Germany’s commerce had been given out since 1914. 

QUESTIONS 

How does Germany compare with the United Kingdom in area? In 
natural resources? 

How do German manufactures compare with those of England in kind and 
quality? Along what lines do the Germans excel? The English? 

In what lines of manufacture does Germany compete with the United 
States? 

How does Hamburg compare with Liverpool as a seaport? 



Chapter VII. 

FRANCE 

LOCATION ^ rance k south of the British Isles and southwest of 
Germany. On the northeast it adjoins Belgium and on 
the southeast Italy. Its area is a little less than that of Germany, and 
its population a little less than half of the United* States. The 
southern and eastern portions are mountainous, but the northern 
and northwestern portions are quite level, forming a part of the 
great plain that extends along the western coast of the continent. 
All the rivers have their source in the mountains. The climate is 
warm temperate, quite similar to that of the South Atlantic States. 
The country has a fertile soil, but the mineral resources are com¬ 
paratively small. 


305 


























































































306 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Four-fifths of the land is divided into small 
Agriculture f arms w hi c h occupy one-half of the inhabitants. 

Though smaller than Texas, France has as many farms as the United 
States. They average in size from fifteen to seventeen acres and 
are cultivated on the plan of intensive farming, as in England. The 
most scientific methods are employed, and the land is in the highest 
state of fertility. Wheat is the most important cereal and the crop 
is of greater value than those of all the other cereals combined. 
Oats is the next cereal in importance, and rye and barley are grown 
to some extent. The sugar-beet is the most valuable agricultural 
product and is raised extensively on the plains in the north. 
France has over 500 sugar factories and produces about 833,000 
tons of sugar annually. Tobacco is grown in some provinces, and 
is a government monopoly. 

France is the leading country of the world in the production 
of grapes and wine; the soil and climate of the southern and eastern 
portions of the country being especially adapted to this industry. 
Grazing is the most important industry in the northern part of the 
country where cattle-breeding and dairying are a fruitful source of 
income to the farmers. Wool of excellent quality is also grown, 
and France is the original home of the Flemish and Percheron 
horses. 


Fisheries 


The fisheries are among tne first in Europe; large 
quantities of cod are taken, and oyster culture is ex¬ 
tensive. Most of the Atlantic fisheries are around the mouth of the 
Gironde, and most of the oyster beds are on the Bay of Biscay off 
St. Malo and in the English Channel. French oysters are inferior 
to the American varieties, but they find ready market at home. 

France produces considerable coal, but not 
enough to supply her demands. Iron ore 
is also mined to some extent in Lorraine. The leading iron manu¬ 
factories are Lille, Nancy and St. Etienne. Salt mines occur near 


Mineral Resources 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


307 


Manufactures 


Nancy, and large quantities are also obtained from the salt marshes 
along the Loire and Gironde. 

France is an important manufacturing country; 
although, in amount, her manufactured prod¬ 
ucts fall far short of those of the United States, Great Britain or 
Germany, she excels in the quality of her goods. Shops and fac¬ 
tories are found throughout the country, but the most extensive 
manufactories of iron and steel are in the north, in the region of the 
coal fields. The manufacture of textiles is one of the most important 
industries, and occupies over a million people. The silk industry 
centers in the Rhone valley, and Lyons is the leading silk market 
and the largest producer of silk textiles in Europe. The silkworm 
has been cultivated in Southern France for several centuries, but 
nine-tenths of the raw material is imported from Italy, China and 
Japan. Rouen has large cotton mills and Lille and Roubaix are 
also important centers of this industry. Excellent woolens are 
made at Roubaix and Tuscany, and Rheims and Lyons manufacture 
shawls. French woolens are noted for their fine texture and 
superior quality. Ribbons, kid gloves, hats, millinery, perfumery 
and numerous small wares, for the making of which the French 
people have a special aptitude, also constitute an important part 
of the manufactures. 

France has an excellent railway system, of 
Transportation p ar is is the largest center. From here, 

railways extend to all of the principal industrial and commercial 
centers in the northern part of the country, and important lines 
extend south to Lyons and Marseilles. In all, there are about 
24,000 miles of railroad, and a trunk line through the Mount 
Cenis Tunnel makes direct connection with Italy. The navigable 
rivers have been canalized, thereby greatly extending their mile¬ 
age. Canals also connect these rivers with each other and with 
some of the rivers of Germany, forming a complete and extensive 
system of inland waterways. 


308 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Paris is the largest city on the continent, the commercial 
and financial center of the country and the focus of a 
vast trade with surrounding countries as well. It has railway 
connections with all the important cities of Europe, and, through 
the Seine, excellent water communication with Great Britain and 
the continental seaports. It is the center of art and fashion and 
has become the great center for the distribution of luxuries of the 



A VIEW ON THE SEINE, PARIS 


civilized world. Paris is also famous for its manufacture of 
women’s apparel, kid gloves, perfumery, porcelain and jewelry. 

Lille, on the northern plain, is an important textile center. 
Rouen is the center of cotton manufactures and Lyons of the silk 
industry. The important seaports are Marseilles, Narbonne and 
Cette on the Mediterranean, Bordeaux on the Atlantic, and Havre, 
which is the seaport of Paris. Rouen, by the excavations in the 







COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


309 


Seine, has also been made an important inland seaport. The 
importance of Marseilles has been lessened by the construction of 
the Mount Cenis, Saint Gothard and other tunnels through the 
Alps, since these give the country to the north direct railway 
connection with Genoa and other Italian cities. 

Although a compact country, France presents a great variety 
of soil, climate and productions. The natural versatility of the 
French people enables them to adapt themselves to these conditions 
in a manner that assures success in whatever they attempt. They 
are full of life, open-hearted and honest, but withal energetic and 
earnest. Neatness and thrift characterize their every effort, and 
in France a larger proportion of homes is owned by their occu¬ 
pants, than in any other country. The thrift of the French is also 
manifested in their use of raw material. Nothing is wasted, and 

what is often rejected by other nationalities as worthless is here 
worked up into valuable by-products. Notwithstanding the disasters 

which France suffered in the World War, the people immediately set 
about restoring the country to its former state of prosperity, and by 
1920 were exporting wheat and other products. 

France has an excellent trade with other European coun- 
Commerce tr - eg anc j t j ie United States. While this trade was cut off 

during the war, it was not permanently destroyed, and within a few 
years it will doubtless reach its former proportions, and possibly 
exceed them. The chief exports are woolens, silk, wine and many 
small articles, such as gloves, millinery, perfumery, porcelain and 
scientific instruments. The chief imports are breadstuffs, raw cotton, 
raw silk and wool. The largest trade is with Great Britain and the 

United States. 

The colonial possessions of France exceed in area the entire l nited 
States and have a population of over 56,000.000. They lie chiefly 
in Africa and Southeastern Asia, and are important factors in the 
commerce of the mother country. Algeria and Indo-China are the most 
important commercially. 


310 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Rehabili- *911 France had a population of 39,602,258. During 
tation the war 1,500,000 were killed and a much larger number 
incapacitated for work. The northern part of the country was devas¬ 
tated and the resources of the nation were completely exhausted. 
However, immediately after the armistice was signed the nation began 
to restore the devastated regions and to bring their industries back 
to a normal condition. 

In 1920 it was estimated that the wheat crop would supply the 
demands at home and provide 100,000,000 bushels for export. Manu¬ 
factures were somewhat retarded by the shortness of coal and the lack 
of raw material. The country is rich in iron and is destined to 
occupy an important position among the iron-producing countries of 
the world. 

According to Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, France had fallen to 
seventh place in ship building, placing her after Netherlands and 
Japan. Before the war, traffic in ships represented about one-half of 
the French trade. During the war the French merchant marine suffered 
heavy losses. But by 1920 the restoration of this loss was well under 
way through the construction of ships for France in the shipyards 
of Great Britain, Canada and the United States. 

QUESTIONS 

Why is France able to support so large a population? 

How do her methods of agriculture compare with those of England? 

How do the manufactures of France compare with those of other 
countries, as to kind, amount and quality? 

Why is so large a proportion of the foreign trade with Great Britain? 

What are the means of communication with the countries to the south? 



BELGIUM, HOLLAND, DENMARK, NORWAY AND 

SWEDEN 


LOCATION 


Belgium, Netherlands or Holland, and Denmark 
occupy a section of the plains extending along the 
west coast of Europe, and a portion of Belgium and Holland is 
below the sea level. In Netherlands, considerable of this land has 
been reclaimed by building dykes and pumping out the water with 
windmills. On the low sand-barrens along the coast of Belgium, 


a similar work has been done by planting a grass that holds in place 
the sand which was formerly drifted by the wind. 


311 















































312 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Belgium is one of the smallest, most populous and 
most enterprising states in the world. With an 
area somewhat less than that of Maryland, the country supports a 
population of more than 6,000,000. The southern portion is high 
and broken, and the northern, low and nearly level. Though 



A VIEW AGR08S THE BASIN, ANTWERP 


naturally unproductive, by skilful tillage and the use of fertilizers, 
the soil has been made to yield abundant harvests. The sandy 
places along the coast have been transformed into excellent grazing 
lands and formerly supported large numbers of horses, cattle and 
sheep of the best breeds. This region is also the center 











bS 





A'a ra -^ 





j is \ 5 

mi 

v £ L °££&? - 


6 1 r ? 

f?/ ^ 3 


longitude East 4 20° from 5 Greenwich 30 1 



























































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


313 


of an important dairy industry. Within this belt is one of more 
fertile soil, on which grains, the sugar-beet and flax are raised. 
The flax crop is very important since the fiber is of the best quality 
and is manufactured into textiles in the country. 

There is quite an extensive coal field in the southern part of 
the country, and deposits of iron are also found in the same 
locality. Most of the coal mined is consumed by home manufac¬ 
tories, but a little is exported to France. Extensive zinc mines 
occur in Moresnet, and the production of metals and ores is an 
important industry. The southern part of the country is devoted 
to manufactures and is an important industrial center. The manu¬ 
facture of cotton, woolen and linen goods and lace are the leading 
industries. The hand-made lace of Belgium is famous for its fine¬ 
ness and beauty, and commands a high price in all civilized 
countries. Porcelain, art-tiles, glassware and cheaper grades of 
all crockery are also made in large quantities in the coal region. 
All of these constitute important articles of export. 

Brussels, the capital, is the most important city. Antwerp 
is the principal port and one of the chief seaports of Europe. 
Verviers, Liege and Seraing are important centers of the metal 
industry. Ghent is noted for its linens, and Mechlin and other 
towns in its vicinity for laces. The country is well supplied with 
railways which are under the control of the state. The Scheldt is 
navigable for ocean vessels as far as Antwerp, and is also con¬ 
nected by canals with the Rhine, which in turn is connected with 
the rivers of France. 

Belgium suffered severely during the war and all her industries, 
except agriculture, were practically suspended. Her trade is chiefly 
with the surrounding European countries, especially France and Great 
Britain, and with the United States. The imports consist chiefly of 
foodstuffs and raw material used in manufactures, especially cotton 
and wool. The exports include iron and steel products, textiles, lace, 


314 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


porcelain, glassware and coal. The United States sends Belgium 
wheat, cotton, corn and petroleum. 

A large part of Holland is the delta of the 
Rhine. The country is a little larger than 
Maryland, and has a population of about 5,000,000. Agri¬ 
culture, dairying and stock-raising are the most important 
industries. The soil and climate make grazing profitable, and 
the country is celebrated for its excellent breeds of cattle, 
horses and sheep. Agriculture takes the form of truck-farm¬ 
ing and the growing of flowers, and the Dutch farmers 
supply vegetables, bulbs and cut flowers to many of the European 
cities. 

Manufacturing is next in importance and consists of the mak¬ 
ing of cotton, woolen and linen goods, sugar, chemicals, agricul¬ 
tural implements, metal work, brick and pottery. Sandstone is 
quarried, and iron ore and coal are mined in small quantities. 

The country is well supplied with canals, varying in size from 
those that will float large ships to mere ditches. These connect 
with the navigable rivers and with each other and furnish a com¬ 
plete system of waterways, which are supplemented by a railway 
system, having about half the mileage of the canals. 

Amsterdam is one of the leading financial centers of Europe, 
but the carrying trade centers about Rotterdam, which, by 
improvement of its canals and rivers, has been transformed into a 
commodious seaport. Delft has a world-wide reputation on 
account of the pottery made there. The trade is principally with 
the surrounding nations and the Dutch colonial possessions. 
The leading exports are butter, cheese, sugar, vegetables, 
• flowers, margarine and flax. The imports are food stuffs, raw 
materials and manufactures. Most of the exports go to 
Great Britain, France and Belgium. The trade with the 
United States is small, amounting to about $163,600,000 a year, 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


315 


more than three-fourths of which is imports. Like England, 
Netherlands has for centuries been a jobbing nation. The volume 
of trade handled by her people amounts to nearly $1,500,000,000 
a year. The Dutch merchant marine is large for the nation, well 
equipped and frequents all ports of the world. Much of the 
carrying trade is done for the Dutch East Indies, whose population 
and commerce exceed in value those of the mother country. 



DENMARK 


Denmark occupies the peninsula of Jutland and a 
few adjoining islands. In area it is a little larger 
than Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island combined, and 
its population is about two and one-fourth millions, which is a little 
less than that of Chicago. Agriculture occupies about one-half 
of the people, manufacturing one-fourth, and fishing and trade the 
remainder. All available land is under cultivation, and excellent 

































316 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


crops of wheat and other cereals and roots are raised. Raising live¬ 
stock and dairying are also important industries. In the quality of 
her butter, Denmark excels all other countries. Manufactures are 
encouraged, but they are few and unimportant. The largest trade 
is with Great Britain and Germany. The exports are butter, eggs, 
lard and pork. The imports, food-stuffs and manufactured articles, 
principally textiles and hardware. Considerable trade is carried on 
with Iceland, from which fish, whale and seal are imported. 
Copenhagen is the capital and commercial center. 



NORWAY AND SWEDEN an <t Sweden 0CCU Py the 

Scandinavian Peninsula, the greatest 

part of which is a plateau, varying from 1000 to 3000 feet in 

altitude, being highest at the South. The combined area of these 

countries is 298,000 square miles, of which 125,000 belongs to 

Norway, and 173,000 to Sweden. Norway is a little larger than 

New Mexico, and Sweden is about the size of California and 

Maryland combined. The population of Norway is a little more 

than 2,250,000 and that of Sweden, is 5,000,000. 





















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


317 


The coast of Norway is indented by numerous deep fiords, 
many forming good harbors. The southern and eastern slopes con¬ 
tain considerable lowland and the streams are small and rapid, 
affording good water-power, but being of little assistance to navi¬ 
gation. One-half of Sweden, and over one-fifth of Norway are 



NORWEGIAN FISHERMEN DRYING FISH 

covered with forests. Spruce, fir and pine predominate. Their 
latitude would give these countries an extremely cold climate, but 
under the influence of the winds from the Atlantic, this is modified 
to a cool temperate over most of the peninsula. 

Until 1905 the two countries were under one government, but 
maintained separate legislative assemblies. Their industries are 
common, but Norway, being the more mountainous, gives less 















318 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


the most celebrated is Port wine, which obtains its name from the 
city of Oporto. Barcelona is the financial and commercial center. 
Madrid is the capital of Spain, is of political significance, but has 
no commercial or financial importance, and the principal fruit ports 
are Malaga, Valentia and Cartegena. 

O 7 o 

A good portion of Italy is formed by a spur of the 
ITALY Alps which extends into the Mediterranean, and is 
known as the Apennine Mountains. In area the country is about 
equal to Nevada, and it has a population of about 32,400,000, 
or less than one-third that of the United States. The northern 
part of the country forms the southern slope of the Alps which 
descend to the Plains of Lombardy, through which flows the Po. 
The basin of this river is alluvial land of remarkable fertility. 
The Apennines extend through the central part of the Peninsula, 
and slope on both sides to the sea. Italy has the same latitude as 
the New England States, but its climate is much warmer and 
somewhat more arid. 


Agriculture 


Italy has at all times been distinctly an agricul¬ 


tural country. The great Plain of Lombardy is 
the most important agricultural district. Its ranges of latitude and 
altitude enable the country to produce all of the crops of the tem¬ 
perate regions, and many tropical products as well, and the seasons 
are such that two, and even three, crops can be obtained during the 
year. Wheat is the most important cereal, but there is not enough 
produced to supply the needs of the population. Corn is raised in 
large quantities, and rice is grown in the irrigated regions. Olives 
constitute the most important of the agricultural products, and 
Italy leads the world in their production. Olive oil is extensively 
used by the inhabitants in place of butter, or other fats. Large 
quantities of the fruit and oil are also exported. Tropical fruits, 
oranges, lemons and grapes are extensively cultivated, and Italy 
ranks next to France in the production of wine. 


Chapter IX 


SPAIN, PORTUGAL, ITALY AND SWITZERLAND 

_ These countries occupy the Iberian Peninsula. 

SPAIN AND i i * • i 

I heir surface is rough anu mountainous, and 

PORTUGAL with the exception of small areas around the 
coast, the land is high. The climate is semi-tropical, except 
in the highest altitudes, and the rainfall is not sufficient for exten- 
sive agriculture. Spain is about the size of California and Ken¬ 
tucky, and has a population of about 19,0^0,000, while Portugal 
is a little smaller than Indiana and has a population of 3.500,000. 
Though politically separate, industrially and commercially these 
countries are one. 

The important agricultural products are merino wool, which is 
the finest in the world, and tropical fruits, including raisins, 
grapes, oranges, lemons, limes and olives, all of which are 
exported. Wine making is also an important industry, and a 
large share of the supply of cork comes from the interior. This 
is obtained from the bark of the cork oak, which grows nearly 
a foot thick. 

There are good supplies of minerals, and the mines have been 
worked for centuries. Silver, iron ore and coal are obtained in 
paying quantities, and about one-half of the world’s supply of 
quicksilver comes from the mines of Almeda in Spain. In general, 
the crudest methods are followed in mining and the reduction 
of ores, and the mineral resources are only partially developed. 
Manufactures are too limited to deserve any special notice. 

The leading exports are wine, fruits, iron ore, merino wool and 
Malaga raisins, from Spain ; and the export for which Portugal is 

319 


320 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


attention to agriculture than Sweden. The leading agricultural 
products are oats, rye, barley and potatoes. Considerable stock is 
raised, and dairying is likewise important in the low lands of the 
south. Ores of copper, silver, lead, iron and zinc are found, and 
mining is an important industry in both countries. The iron is of 
superior quality, and is exported to all iron-manufacturing coun¬ 
tries. There is but little coal on the peninsula. 

Manufacturing industries are few. The most important is 
lumber and lumber products, the Scandinavian countries being the 
largest exporters of lumber in Europe. Matches and wood pulp 
are made and exported in large quantities. Iron manufactures 
are second in importance. The manufacture of textiles is limited. 

The trade is with Great Britain, Germany and Denmark. 
Only a small portion of the trade is with the United States. The 
exports are lumber, pig iron, dairy products, matches and wood 
pulp. The inhabitants of Norway are extensively engaged in fish¬ 
ing, and export cod and cod-liver oil. The imports are some 
food-stuffs and manufactured goods, principally textiles and 
machinery. 

The leading cities are all seaports. Christiania, the capital of 
Norway, is at the head of the Skager-Rack; Stavengar, Bergen, 
Tromso and Hammerfest, the most northerly town of Europe, are 
important trade centers of Norway. Stockholm, the capital of 
Sweden, has an excellent harbor on the Baltic, and is the commer¬ 
cial and financial center of the country. Goteborg and Halmstad 
on the Cattegat are also important ports. The leading cities of 
both countries are connected by railway, there being about 7000 
miles on the Peninsula. 

Scandinavians are excellent sailors, and their ships are found 
in all the leading ports of the world, and, in proportion to its pop¬ 
ulation, Norway has the largest merchant marine of any nation. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


321 


The most important single industry is silk culture, in 
which Italy is one of the leading countries of the world, ranking 
next to China and Japan. The industry is located principally 
in the northern part, where the mulberry thrives and the climate 
is especially suited to the growth of silkworms. 

Notwithstanding the natural advantages of soil and climate, 
the Italian farmers are mostly poor, and receive but small returns 
for their arduous toil. Most of the land is owned by wealthy land¬ 
lords, who rent it on such terms that the tenants are continually at 
a disadvantage and the methods employed in working the land, as 
well as the implements used, are of the most primitive sort. 

The mineral industries are few. Carrara marble is the 

Minerals 

most choice stone for statuary purposes, and is ex¬ 
ported to all countries. Most of the world’s supply of sulphur is 
also obtained from the Island of Sicily, and some other volcanic 
regions. Iron ore is found in some localities, and is now being 

O 7 O 

successfully worked under the fostering care of the government. 

The absence of coal limits the manufactures to 
Manufactures textiles and straw goods, but the iron industry 

is being developed. The Italians have a special aptitude for the 
tine arts, and statuary, coral ornaments, mosaics and jewelry are the 
most important articles of manufacture. All these, on account of 
their excellence, command a high price in foreign markets. Much 
of this work is done in the homes of the workmen. There are but 
few large factories, or shops, even, employing any number of work¬ 
men. Macaroni, the most of which is consumed at home, is also 
produced in large quantities. 

Italy occupies a central position on the Medi- 

Transportation terranean. She has an abundance of sea coast 

and numerous good harbors. The other ports of the Mediter¬ 
ranean, as well as those of the East, are easily reached from her 
shores, and these advantages have given her a large carrying trade 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


non 
0 LL 


and a goodly number of Italians follow the sea. The country also 
has a good merchant marine. There are about 10,000 miles of 
railways, which are organized into trunk lines extending along 
either coast. By means of the Mt. Cenis, St. Gothard and Sim¬ 
plon tunnels, trunk lines also connect Italy with France, Switzer- 



DRVINO MACARONI 


land and the important centers of Europe, such as Vienna, Berlin 
and Paris. On account of these advantages most of the export 
trade is by rail. 

Rome, the capital, contains the Vatican, which is the 
residence of the Pope, and is the center of the Roman 
Catholic Church for the world as well as the center of government 
for the kingdom. It is more celebrated for its historic and artistic 


Cities 






COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


323 


associations than for its commercial importance. Genoa and 
Venice are the most important seaports. In the fourteenth cen¬ 
tury Venice was the commercial center of the world, but with the 
change in commercial routes she lost her prestige. Milan, in the 
northern part of the kingdom, is the great inland commercial city 
and the largest railway center of the country. Florence is noted 
for its art works. Palermo is the commercial center of Sicily, 
and Colonia, Brindisi, and Ancona are important ports on the 
Suez Canal route. 

Commerce ^he annua ^ exports amount to about $284,000,000 
and the imports to $342,000,000. The exports are 
raw silk, olives, sulphur, marble, art works, and textiles. The 
silk and art goods go to France, the United States, and Switzerland 
and some of the cotton goods go to Turkey. The imports are 
cotton from Egypt and the United States, wheat from Hungary, 
manufactures and textiles from Great Britain and Germany. In 
the foreign trade Germany ranks first, followed in order by Switzer¬ 
land, France, Great Britain, and the United States. The exports 
to this country amount to about $54,333,000 a year, and the im¬ 
ports from us to about $76,000,000. We buy the Italians’ art 
goods and Carrara marble, olive oil and straw goods, and sell them 
cotton, agricultural implements, machinery, and hardware. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the difference between the agricultural methods employed in Spain 
and those in vogue in France and Germany? What is the cause of the difference? 

Why are there so few manufactures in Spain and Portugal? What effect has 
this condition upon the commercial interests of these countries? 

How do the agricultural methods employed in Italy compare with those in the 
United States? Would the Italians be successful farmers in the United States? 

What commercial advantages does Italy derive from her geographical con¬ 
ditions? 

What are the chief sources of Switzerland’s revenue? 


324 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Switzerland is an inland mountainous country 

SWITZERLAND , . , „ A1 T , . , „ 

lying wholly within ciie Alps. Its area is about 

twice that of Massachusetts, and its population is about 3,500,000. 
Seven-tenths of these are German, and less than one-fourth of them 
French. It is the land of lofty mountains, deep valleys and beautiful 
lakes and is famous the world over for the beauty and grandeur of 
its scenery. The valleys are fertile and wheat and other cereals and 
some vegetables are raised, but the supply is not sufficient to meet 
the needs of the people. The mountain farmers make excellent cheese, 
some of which is exported. 

Switzerland is a manufacturing country, and most of its industries 
are highly specialized. The making of watches is the leading in¬ 
dustry. Most of the work is done by hand, and, until the advent 
of the American machine-made watch, the Swiss watchmakers sup¬ 
plied the trade for many countries. Cotton and silk fabrics, and 
buttons and embroidery are also made. Many of the Swiss are skilled 
in engraving on wood, and produce beautiful and valuable specimens 
of art work. The exports are manufactured goods, and some condensed 
milk. The largest trade is with Germany, followed by Great Britain 
and France. Trade with the United States is inconsiderable. The 
Mount Cenis, Saint Gothard and the Simplon tunnels arc of great 
advantage to the country because they have made transportation 
much cheaper, and given direct railway connection with surrounding 
states. 

Geneva, at the head of the Rhine, is the chief trade center, 
and is noted for the manufacture of watches. Basel is the 
center of the silk industry, and Zurich has important cotton 
factories. 


Chapter X 

THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE 

The adjustment of political conditions after the World War led,to 
the formation of several new countries in southeastern Europe and to 
the change of the boundaries of a number of others. However, these 
changes in political conditions have not affected the industrial and 
commercial conditions of this part of the continent. 

CZECHO- The republic of Czecho-Slovakia is one of the new states 
SLOVAKIA formed after the dismemberment of the former Empire of 
Austria-Hungary as a result of the World War. It comprises the prov¬ 
inces of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Ruthenia which formed a part 
of Austria, and Slovakia, which formed a part of Hungary. It has an 
area of 54,500 square miles, or a little less than that of Illinois, and a 
population of over 13,500,000 or more than double that of Illinois. 
Czecho-Slovakia is rich in natural resources and is one of the most 
highly developed of the manufacturing countries of Europe, moreover, 
it is inhabited by an intelligent, industrious and educated people. 

Natural Agriculture is highly developed and intensive farming 
Resources is practiced. The chief cereal crops are wheat, rye, and 
oats. Large quantities of potatoes are raised, and about a half-million 
acres are devoted to sugar beets annually. The beets contain a high 
percentage of sugar, and the beet crop forms the basis of one of the 
leading industries, making Czecho-Slovakia one of the chief countries 
of Europe in the manufacture of sugar. The country is also noted for 
its hops, which are of high industrial value. 


325 


326 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Czechoslovakia is mountainous. Bohemia, is surrounded by 
mountains, and the Carpathians extend through the other provinces. 
The country is one of the richest in Europe in forest resources, as over 
one-third of its area is covered by forests. 


Every kind of useful mineral is found here. The country 
possesses abundant quantities of good coal and of iron 


Minerals 


ores, as well as copper, silver, gold, salt and oil. Czecho-Slovakia is 
one of the largest sources of supply of radium. The uranium and 
radium mines are located near Joachimsthal. Some of the largest 
mines of graphite in Europe are found near Budweis. The mineral 
springs of Carlsbad, Marienbad and Franzensbad are visited yearly 
by thousands of people from all over the world. 


Czecho-Slovakia is famous for its glass, which is ex¬ 
ported to all parts of the world. The making of art 


Manufactures 


glassware, in which the Bohemians excel, is an industry of great im¬ 
portance and one which has been established here for centuries. Porce¬ 
lain is also manufactured, the china articles produced near Carlsbad 
being famous. The textile industry in all its branches—cotton, wool 
and silk—is on a large scale, the country possessing over two thousand 
textile mills. The iron and steel industry is also of large proportions, 
the chief products including railway rolling stock, agricultural machin¬ 
ery, arms and munitions. Other important branches are the manu¬ 
facture of wood furniture, paper, and chemicals. As already men¬ 
tioned, Czecho-Slovakia is one of the largest sugar manufacturing 
countries in Europe, having over 200 large and well-equipped sugar 
mills. 

While the industries of this country are on a large factory scale, 
there are still a great number of articles, such as lace, toys and musical 
instruments, which are manufactured in the homes of the people and 
which have an established reputation for excellence that extends be¬ 
yond the borders of the country. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


327 


Transportation 


Czecho-Slovakia is an inland country and the great¬ 


est part of its commerce is carried by rail across the 
adjacent countries to Baltic and Adriatic ports. It is provided with 
excellent transportation facilities, both as regards railroads and water¬ 
ways, and a great amount of its produce is carried on the Elbe and 
Danube. The Danube gives it access to the countries of the Lower 
Danube valley and an outlet to the Black Sea, while the Elbe gives it 
direct and easy access to the North Sea. Provisions have been made 
by treaty with Germany for using the port of Hamburg, which is sit¬ 
uated at the mouth of the Elbe, for its foreign trade. Another naviga¬ 
ble river is the Moldau, a tributary of the Elbe, on which Prague is 
situated. Besides these rivers the country is provided with a number 
of canals connecting the Danube with the Elbe and the Oder. The 
chief port on the Danube is Bratislava, while that on the Elbe is 
Aussig. 


Czecho-Slovakia, especially the provinces of Bohemia and Mo¬ 
ravia, is well-provided with railways. It has about 8500 miles of rail¬ 
ways of which more than half are owned and operated by the Govern¬ 
ment. 


Czecho-Slovakia is very advantageously located as re- 

i nrnmprrp 

gards trade, being on the main trade routes between 
northern and central Europe and between eastern and western Eu¬ 
rope. It has a very extensive foreign trade, the bulk of which is car¬ 
ried on with the neighboring countries of Austria, Germany, Hungary, 
Poland, Pviimania and Italy, as well as with England and France. The 
trade with the United States is also of considerable importance and 
is growing larger. The chief exports to the United States are glass, 
chinaware, imitation jewelry and novelties, beads and sugar-beet 
seeds. The chief imports from the United States consist of raw cot¬ 
ton, agricultural machinery, tractors, printing machinery, hardware 
and tools. The natural resources of Czecho-Slovakia and her variety 
of manufactures will aid in increasing her commerce. 


328 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Cities 


The capital of the country is Prague, population about 


250,000, one of the oldest and most picturesque towns in 
Europe. Besides being an important commercial and industrial town, 
it is also a center of learning and possesses one of the oldest univer¬ 
sities in existence. Other important towns are Brno or Brunn, popu¬ 
lation about 125,000; Plzen or Pilsen, population about 80,000; and 
Bratislava or Pressburg, population about 75,000. 

AUSTRIA The P resen ^ re P u blic of Austria occupies about one-fifth 
of the area of the former empire of Austria. It contains 
all the provinces of former Austria which are inhabited by Germans. 
In this respect the country possesses now a population of racial unity 
in contrast to the diversity of nationalities which the old state com¬ 
prised. Austria has an area of 30,800 square miles or about equal 
to that of South Carolina and a population of about 6,200,000 or a 
little less than that of Illinois. 

Austria is a mountainous country, being traversed in all 
directions by the Alps. Forests cover large areas and 
the timber resources of the country are of considerable 
value and are among its chief assets. The country has besides import¬ 
ant mineral resources, especially coal, iron ore, copper, zinc, silver, gold 
and salt. In its numerous mountain streams and waterfalls Austria 
also possesses great potential water power. But the main occupation of 
the people is agriculture. Although intensive farming is practiced, the 
country does not raise enough food to supply the needs of its popula¬ 
tion. Large quantities of foodstuffs have therefore to be imported. 
The extensive pasture lands of the Alps offer great possibilities for 
cattle raising and this industry, as well as that of dairying, is highly 
developed and has attained large proportions. 

f The production of textiles is the most important in- 

anu ac ures j^^y ^though the raw material—cotton, wool and 

silk—has to be imported. The manufacture of clothing and that of 
millinery are other well-developed branches of industry. The chief 


Natural 

Resources 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


329 


seat of these industries is Vienna, where the workmen are renowned 
both for their taste and for their skill. The iron and steel industry 
located around Steyr and the manufacture of machinery both at this 
place and at Vienna are also of some importance. The manufacture 
of pianos, automobiles and paper are other well-developed branches 
of industry. 


Cities 


« . Austria is an inland country. Its only direct outlet 

to the sea is through the great waterway, the Dan¬ 
ube, which puts it in communication with the countries of the Lower 
Danube valley. Its access to the Adriatic is by railway across northern 
Italy to the port of Trieste, which was formerly its principal seaport, 
but which now belongs to Italy. The country possesses an adequate 
system of railways. 

Over one-third of the total population of Austria is living 
in towns and more than twenty-five per cent is concentrated 
in Vienna, which has a population of 1,842,000. The capital of the 
country is Vienna, situated on the Danube, at a point where a series of 
passes in the Carpathian and Alpine Mountains gives it railway con¬ 
nections with the adjoining countries. Vienna is one of the oldest 
towns of Europe, but one of the handsomest, gayest, and most pleasant 
among all the larger towns of that continent. Before the war it was 
one of the most important financial and industrial centers of Europe. 
Other chief towns with their population are: Graz, 157,032; Linz, 
93,473; Innsbruck, 55,659; Salzburg, 36,450; and Klagenfurt, 26,111. 

The republic of Hungary occupies about one-third of 
the area of the former state of Hungary. The new 
state has an area of a little over 35,000 square miles or about equal to 
that of North Carolina and a population, according to the census 
taken in 1921, of 7,840,832, or a little more than the population of 
the New England States. The population is composed almost wholly 
of Hungarians, for as a result of the World War, all the territories 
inhabited by other nationalities have been assigned to the neighboring 
countries. 


HUNGARY 


330 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Natural Hungary, which consists of broad grazing plains with a 
Resources so ^ °f great fertility, is essentially an agricultural coun¬ 
try. Both the soil and climate are well adapted for the raising of wheat 
and corn, and large quantities of these cereals as well as of rye, oats, 
barley and potatoes, are grown. About two-thirds of the population 
is engaged in agriculture. Modern methods of cultivation and im¬ 
proved agricultural machinery and implements are used. The culti¬ 
vation of grapes is quite extensive and wine of good quality is pro¬ 
duced. Large quantities of other fruits are also grown. Raising live 
stock is carried on in accordance with scientific methods and many 
farms contain herds of high grade cattle, sheep and swine. Hungary 
has been for many years an exporter of all kinds of foodstuffs. Her 
agricultural resources assure Hungary a thriving commerce, for many 
European countries are waiting for her surplus of wheat and other 
agricultural products. Among her mineral resources are coal and iron. 


Manufactures 


The most important industry is flour milling, which 


is centered at Budapest. Here some of the largest 
flour mills in the world are to be found. It is well to notice that the 
present process of making wheat flour by roller mills originated in 
Hungary. Other branches of industry are the manufacture of agricul¬ 
tural instruments, railway rolling stock and textiles. 


Transportation 


Hungary is an entirely inland country and the Dan¬ 


ube is its only outlet to the sea. Canals unite the 
Danube and the Elbe and railways connect all important cities. 


The capital of Hungary is Budapest, population about 
1 leS 950,000, beautifully situated on both banks of the Danube. 
It is not only the commercial and industrial center of Hungary, but also 
its intellectual center. It is next to Vienna the largest city in that part 
of the world and one of the most progressive in Europe. Other chief 
towns with their population are: Szeged, 120,000; Szabadka, 95,000; 
Debreczen, 95,000; and Ujpest, 60,000. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


331 


JUGO-SLAVIA 


Natural 

Resources 


This is one of the new states formed as a result of 
the World War. It has been constituted by the 
union of the former kingdoms of Serbia and of Montenegro with the 
southern provinces of the former empire of Austria-Hungary, which 
are inhabited by Slavs, namely Bosnia and Herzogovina, Croatia and 
Slavonia, Dalmatia, and some other portions of the southern provinces 
of Austria and of Hungary. It is the largest state in the Balkan Pe¬ 
ninsula proper, occupying the whole northwestern and central part of 
this peninsula, and bordering on the Adriatic Sea. It has an area of 
95,630 square miles, or about equal to that of Oregon and a population 
of about 14,000,000, or a little more than double that of Illinois. 

Generally speaking, the country is mountainous, being 
traversed by numerous branches of the Alps. It is rich 
in natural resources, especially forests and minerals. 
The forests occupy almost half of the total area of the country. The 
mineral resources include coal, iron ore, copper and gold, but they 
have not yet been exploited. In Jugo-Slavia, namely, at Idria, is found 
one of the largest quicksilver mines in Europe, producing over 125,000 
tons of ore a year. Agriculture is, however, the chief occupation of 
the people. The country is divided into small farms, and as a rule the 
peasants are the owners of the land they cultivate. Fruit-growing 
and stock-raising are also very important branches of activity and 
large quantities of plums, as well as a great number of hogs, are 
annually exported. Silk culture is also actively pursued. Of manu¬ 
facturing industries, flour milling is the most developed, followed by 
brewing, distilling and carpet weaving. The chief seat of carpet weav¬ 
ing, which forms one of the largest home industries of the country, is 


at Pirot, and the carpets are usually named after that place. 

. Jugo-Slavia borders on the Adriatic Sea and its chief 
Transportation out j e ^ s are through the ports of Spalato and Cattaro, 

but the natural outlet for the northern part of the country is the port 
of Fiume. By treaty arrangements with Greece the country has an 


332 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


outlet to the Mediterranean through the port of Salonica. The Danube, 
which forms for some distance its northern boundary, connects it with 
the other countries of the Danube Valley. Jugo-Slavia has about 
2800 miles of railroads which are located mostly in the northern part 
and are owned and operated by the Government. 


Cities 


Belgrade (population about 90,000), the capital, is situated 
on the Danube, and is on the main railway route from Cen¬ 
tral Europe to Constantinople. Other principal cities, with their popu¬ 
lation, are: Agram or Zagrab, 40,000; Monastir, 30,000; Prizrend, 
28,000; Nish, 25,000; Djakova, 25,000; Serajevo, 15,000; Pirot, 12,000; 
and Cettinje, 5000. 


GREECE Greece.occupies the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula. 

It is rugged and mountainous, with a deeply indented 
coast. It has an area of about 59,000 square miles, or about equal 
to that of Georgia, and a population estimated at about 6,000,000, 
or a little less than that of Illinois. 


Natural Agriculture is the main occupation of the people, en- 
Resources gaging about half the population, but only about one- 
fifth of the country is arable. Fruit is the most important crop and 
Greece is one of the largest producers of currants. Olives, figs,'lemons 
and oranges are other important fruits grown, while tobacco is also 
largely cultivated. Among the mineral resources are iron, lead, copper, 
manganese and coal. Shipping is one of the most important and 
profitable undertakings of the people of Greece and the Greek mer¬ 
chant marine does a great deal of the carrying trade for the eastern 
Mediterranean countries. The Corinth Ship Canal, four miles long, 
shortens the route between Aegean ports and western Europe by over 
a hundred miles. Most of the foreign trade is with Great Britain, 
France, Russia and the adjoining countries. The trade with the 
United States is increasing. The carrying trade has fallen off, due to 
the disasters caused by the war. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


333 


# The capital of the country is Athens, a city famous in the 
Uties history of civilization as the seat of the highest development 
of art, literature and philosophy. It is now a pleasant modern town 
with a population of 170,000. Its seaport, as in olden times, is Piraeus, 
population about 75,000. Other chief towns, with their population, 
are: Salonica, 160,000; Patras, 40,000; Corfu, 30,000; Yolo, 28,000; 
Cavalla, 25,000. 


Natural 

Resources 


BULGARIA ^ u ^ ar i a * s one of the countries occupying the basin 
of the Lower Danube, lying on the right bank of that 
river. It has an area of about 40,000 square miles, or just a little 
larger than that of Ohio and a population of about 5,000,000, or a 
little less than that of Ohio. 

Bulgaria is an agricultural country and about five- 
sevenths of the people are engaged in agriculture. 
The land is divided into small farms and as a rule the 
peasants are owners of the land they cultivate. The methods of agri¬ 
culture, while not altogether up-to-date, are nevertheless quite modern 
and intensive farming is practiced in many places. The chief products 
are wheat, corn, barley and oats, of which large quantities are exported. 
Among other products are tobacco, fruits, wine and silk. One of the 
special products of this country is attar of roses. The chief source of the 
world’s supply of this product comes from a small region in Bulgaria, 
specially suited for the cultivation of roses. The Balkan Mountains 
which traverse the country from east to west are covered with exten¬ 
sive forests and contain also vast mineral resources which have, how¬ 
ever, hardly been touched. The most important manufacturing indus¬ 
try is flour-milling. 

. Bulgaria borders on the Black Sea and the great bulk 
Transportation ^ f ore jg n trade passes through the ports of Varna 

and Burgas. The Danube also forms one of its chief arteries of com¬ 
munication. Trade is mostly with the neighboring countries, that with 
the United States being small. Railways connect the capital, Sofia 



MAKING THE NATIVE BREAD IN THE STREETS OF BERKOVITSA, BULGARIA 



















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


335 


(population about 130,000), with all the principal towns in the coun¬ 
try and with the general European railway systems, as the main line 
from Central Europe to Constantinople passes through it. Other 
towns, with their population, are: Philippopolis, 50,000; Ruschuk, 
its chief port on the Danube, 40,000; Slivno, 20,000; Tirnovo, 20,000. 

ROUMANIA a resu ^ ^he War, Roumania has more than 

doubled is area and population and has become the 
largest and the richest country in the Balkan Peninsula. It occupies 
the basin of the Lower Danube, and this important river forms its 
southern boundary for a long distance before entering the Black Sea. 
It has an area of over 122,000 squares miles, or nearly three times 
that of Pennsylvania, and a population of about 18,000,000, or more 
than double that of Pennsylvania. 


Roumania is essentially an agricultural country. It has 
Natural been for a long time one of the leading wheat producing 
Resources coun t r ies in Europe, even before the addition of Bess¬ 
arabia, which is a continuation of the famous black earth region of 
Russia and that of the Banat, one of the most fertile farming districts 
of former Hungary. About eighty-five per cent of the population is 
engaged in agriculture. Besides wheat, large quantities of corn, which 
forms the staple food of the people, barley and oats are produced, as 
well as large quantities of flax, fruits and wine. On account of the 
lack of education of the peasants, the methods of cultivation are not 
modern and intensive farming is not practiced except in the newly 
acquired provinces of Transylvania and Banat.. 

The Carpathian Mountains traverse the country in a large semi¬ 
circle. The mountains are covered with extensive forests which make 
the timber resources of Roumania very great. On the foothills of the 
Carpathians extensive oil fields are located, and Roumania is among 
the largest oil-producing countries in the world. The oil industry is 
of recent origin, but it has developed very rapidly. Large refineries 
are located at Ploesti and at the Black Sea port of Constanza, which 



*>LA.CE DU THEATRE, BUCHAREST, ROUMANIA 


































COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


337 


is connected with the oil fields by several pipe lines. Other minerals 
found in large quantities, but which have hardly been wmrked, are 
coal, iron ore, copper and salt. 


Transportation 


Roumania has excellent transportation facilities. It 


Commerce 


borders on the Black Sea and through its port of 
Constanza, which is provided with modern facilities, is in direct com¬ 
munication with all parts of the world. The bulk of the cereals is 
exported through the Danube ports of Galatz and Braila. Roumania 
has about 4000 miles of railways which are owned and operated by 
the Government. 

The foreign trade of Roumania is extensive, the chief 
articles of export being wheat, corn, other cereals, oil 
and timber products. The bulk of the trade is with Germany, Austria 
and the neighboring countries, but great quantities of cereals are also 
sent to England, France and Belgium. The chief articles of import 
are textiles, agricultural machinery, metals and manufactures of 
metals. The trade with the United States, which was quite unimpor¬ 
tant before the war, is increasing. 

The capital of the country is Bucharest, with a population 
about 300,000. It is one of the most modern and ■ beau¬ 
tiful cities in Eastern Europe, and it is called the Paris of the Orient. 
Other chief towns, with their population, are: Jassy, 90,000; Galatz, 
90,000; Braila, 80,000; Brashov, 60,000, and Cluj, 100,000. 

The republic of Poland is the largest and by far the most 
important new state reconstituted in Europe as a result 
of the World War. It comprises territories taken from Russia, Austria- 
Hungary and Germany—countries that dismembered the old state of 
Poland and divided it among themselves in the eighteenth century. 
Poland is one of the largest countries of Europe and has an area of 
about 150.000 square miles, or about that of California. Its population 
is estimated at about 35,000,000, or nearly one-third the population 
of the United States. It is a country rich in natural resources and 


Cities 


POLAND 


338 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


with a very favorable geographic location for trade. It lies almost 
completely in the Basin of the Vistula and occupies a great portion 
of the North European plain. It is located on the trade routes running 
east and west, from Russia to Germany, and north and south, from 
the Baltic to the Black Sea. 


Poland is one of the richest countries in Europe as 
regards natural resources of all kinds. Its soil is very 
fertile and it has been estimated that about 85 per cent 


Natural 

Resources 


of its area is productive. Nearly half of the productive area is arable 
land, while about twenty-five per cent is covered with forests and the 
remainder consists of pasture and meadows. The chief crops are 
wheat, corn, rye, barley, oats and potatoes. The production of cereals 
is sufficient not only for the needs of the population but also to provide 
a large surplus for export. The production of potatoes, in which 
Poland occupies a leading place among the countries of Europe, is the 
basis of a large manufacture of alcohol, starch and other chemical 
products. Another important crop is that of suger beets, and this 
country is one of the largest producers of sugar in Europe. Hemp, 
hops, tobacco and chicory are among other important products. 


The southern part of the country is traversed by the 
Carpathian Mountains, which are covered with exten¬ 
sive forests. The area of the forests has been estimated 


Forests and 
Minerals 


at about 18,000,000 acres. The mineral resources are very great, 
Poland having some of the largest coal and iron ore deposits in Europe. 
The chief iron and coal districts are around Cracow, in the Dombrowa 
district, and those in Upper Silesia. Poland has besides extensive oil 
fields, which are situated in Galicia, and which contribute about five 
per cent of the world’s total production of oil. Other minerals are 
zinc, in the production of which Poland is second only to the United 
States; lead and salt. The salt mines of Wieliczka, near Cracow, are 
the largest and most famous salt mines in the world. They have been 
worked for centuries and some miners live in the mines. 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


339 


n/f . Poland has all the necessary conditions for indus- 

Manmactures , . , , , , , . . , , , ,, , ,. 

trial development and is m fact one of the leading 

manufacturing countries. The chief manufactures consist of textiles, 
iron and steel products, chemicals, paper, sugar, wood products, leather 
and food products. There are also breweries, distilleries, and oil 
refineries. The chief seat of the textile industry is at Lodz, which 
was formerly known as the Manchester of Russia, and Bielsk. The 
chief seats of the mining and metallurgical industries are in Czes¬ 
tochowa, Upper Silesia and Cracow. 

_ . Poland is an inland country and is under a great 

1 ransportation r , , , ,, , , 

r disadvantage in not possessing a suitable seaboard. 

It has indeed a small strip of seacoast on which, however, no suitable 
port is located. The natural door for its foreign trade is Danzig, 
which is the port of the Vistula basin, but which has been constituted 
a Free State under the protection of the League of Nations. By a 
treaty signed between Danzig and Poland, these two states form a 
single customs territory, and in this way Poland has gained free and 
complete access to the sea. Besides the Vistula, the country possesses 
other navigable rivers as well as canals. Poland has about 8000 miles 
of railroads which are owned and operated by the Government. 

Its geographical location as the gateway between the 
trade of Germany and Russia makes Poland an impor¬ 
tant trading region, as well as a highway for transit trade. Its foreign 
trade is extensive. The bulk of the trade is with Germany, which 
sends about three-fourths of the imports and takes about sixty per 
cent of the exports. Next in importance comes the trade with Russia, 
and then that with the other neighboring countries. The trade with 
the United States, especially imports, is quite large and is increasing 
steadily. 


Commerce 


The capital of the country is Warsaw, population about 
Uues 85(^000, which is an important industrial, commercial and 
railroad center. Other chief towns, with their population, are: Cracow, 


340 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


UKRAINE 


200,000, the most important center of Polish intellectual and national 
life; Lodz, 450,000, one of the largest manufacturing centers in Europe; 
Lwow or Lemberg, 200,000, the capital of Galicia; Czestochowa, an 
important center of national and religious life, and Przemysl, 150,000. 

The republic of Ukraine is one of the largest states 
formed after the dismemberment of the Russian Empire 
as a result of the Russian Revolution of 1917. This state occupies the 
southwestern part of Russia. It is bordered by the Black Sea on the 
south, by Rumania and Poland on the west, by White Russia and 
Soviet Russia on the north and by Soviet Russia on the east. The 
area of Ukraine is estimated at over 300,000 square miles, or about 
the combined area of Texas and Louisiana. The population is esti¬ 
mated at about 42,000,000. 

Ukraine was one of the richest parts of the former Rus- 
Natural sian Empire, possessing a very fertile soil and large 


Resources 


mineral resources, especially coal and iron. The 


Ukraine, which occupies most of the famous Black Earth region of 
Russia, is one of the chief granaries of the world. Of the total area 
about sixty-five per cent is arable land; about twelve per cent is 
pastures and meadows; about ten per cent forests, and only about 
five per cent unproductive land. The chief products are wheat, corn, 
barley, rye and potatoes. Large quantities of sugar beets are also 
raised, making it an important sugar manufacturing country. Cattle 
raising also forms an important branch of activity and is a great source 
of wealth. The mineral resources are great. The iron and coal fields 
situated on the Donetz River are among the most extensive and richest 
in Europe. About seventy-five per cent of the total output of coal 
and iron of the former Russian Empire was produced here. 

Ukraine was one of the most developed regions of 
the former Russian Empire from an industrial view¬ 
point. The Donetz Basin is the seat of an extensive iron and steel 
industry. Next in importance is the sugar industry. 


Manufactures 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


341 


Commerce ^ ie ^^ ra ^ ne * s a ^ ar » e ex PO f ter of cereals, especially 
wheat, and of sugar, besides supplying part of Russia 

with foodstuffs, coal and iron. Textiles are the chief manufactured 
articles imported. 

The Ukraine borders on the Black Sea, and has sev¬ 
eral good seaports, the chief one being Odessa. It is 
traversed from north to south by several navigable rivers, such as the 
Dnieper, the Bug, and the DonCtz. It is provided with about 12,000 
miles of railroads. 


Transportation 


Kiev, the capital, with a population of about 600,000, is 
picturesquely situated on the Dnieper, and is called the 
“City of a Thousand Spires,” on account of its numerous churches and 
monasteries. Kiev is one of the oldest towns of Russia and has been 
for centuries the center of the intellectual and national life of the 
Ukranian people. Other large cities with their population are: Odessa, 
650,000, the chief port of the Black Sea, provided with the most 
modern facilities for handling a large trade, and one of the most 
beautiful and modern cities in Europe; Kharkov, 260,000; Ekateri- 
noslav, 220,000; Nikolaev, 100,000, and Voronezh, 100,000. 


QUESTIONS 

What conditions are favorable to commerce in Czecho-Slovakia? 

What country formed from Russia is noted for its production of wheat? 
What country in southeastern Europe enlarged her boundaries as a result 
of the World War? 

What form of government have most of the countries of southeastern 
Europe adopted? 



PANORAMA OF THE BOSPORUS 














Chapter XI 


TURKEY 


. . As a result of the war Turkey, which still occupied a 
large part of the Balkan Peninsula and a great amount 
of territory in Asia, has lost almost all its possessions in Europe except 



THE HARBOR, CONSTANTINOPLE 


Constantinople and most of its territory in Asia. It occupies at present 

an area of about 175,000 square miles and has a population of about 

8.000,000, as compared with an area of 613.000 square miles and a 

population of 21,000,000 before the war. Almost the only part left 

today is Asia Minor, which borders on the Mediterranean and the 

343 


/ 









344 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Black Sea. After the defeat of the Greeks in 1922, Thrace as far 
as the Maretza River was returned to Turkey. 

Agriculture, which is the chief occupation of the people, 
is in a backward condition, although the soil is very 
fertile. The chief products are cereals of all kinds, 


Natural 

Resources 



CITY OF JAFFA, THE ANCIENT PORT OF PALESTINE 


cotton, tobacco and fruits, such as grapes, figs and nuts. The pro¬ 
duction of silk is quite important. Grazing is an important industry 
in some sections and wool and mohair, the wool of the angora goat, are 
exported. The country has large timber resources but they are not 
properly worked. Turkey does not possess any manufacturing indus¬ 
tries worth mentioning, with the exception of the manufacture of rugs 
and carpets. The rugs are famous for their beauty and command high 
prices in all civilized countries. Commerce is mostly with the neigh¬ 
boring countries, that with the United States being very small. 








COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


345 


Cities 


Constantinople was the chief center of trade as well as the 
capital of the Empire. It is situated on the Bosporus 
and commands a strong strategic position which gives it an importance 
it could not have from its commerce and industries alone. It is con¬ 
nected with European cities by railway and with the east by railways 
and by caravan routes, and carries on a trade with nearly all the 
countries of the world. Other important cities are Smyrna on the 
Mediterranean, an important seaport with direct communications with 
most of the European ports: Brussa, the former capital of the Empire, 
and Sinope, a port on the Black Sea. Angora, which was made the 
capital of the new government, has become one of the most im¬ 
portant cities, politically, in Asia Minor. 

Damascus, the principal city of Syria, is the starting point 
for caravans to various sections of Asia, and Beirut is 
an important center for the manufacture of textiles. It is connected 
with Damascus by railway. Most of the trade is with European 
countries. 

The United States imports from Turkey opium, ottar of roses, 
rugs, wool, gums, hides, silk and Turkish tobacco. Our exports are 
very small, amounting to about $2,000,000 a year. 


SYRIA 


Chapter XII 


BALTIC STATES AND FINLAND 

BALTIC ^ ie states comprise Esthonia (23,160 square 

ctatcc miles), Latvia (24,440 square miles), and Lithuania 
(59,633 square miles). The entire area of these coun¬ 
tries is a little more than that of Colorado, and their entire population 
in 1921 was 8,053,000. In 1918 each country withdrew from Russia 
and established a republic. The following year the Soviet Republic 
recognized each of the governments and thus opened the way to their 
recognition by the other governments of Europe and by the LTnited 
States. 

Extending along the Baltic Sea from Eastern Prussia to the Gulf 
of Finland, these countries occupy an important commercial position. 
The land along the coast is low; inland most of the region is heavily 
timbered. The valleys are fertile and agriculture and lumbering are 
the chief industries. 

Since their independence the Baltic States have made rapid prog¬ 
ress along all industrial lines. Riga, the capital of Latvia, is a city 
of over 245,000 inhabitants and is one of the most important ports 
on the Baltic. Memel in Lithuania and Reval in Esthonia are the 
other seaports. The trade is principally with Germany and the other 
countries bordering on the Baltic Sea. 

Finland was formerly a part of Russia, but it became 
FINLAND . 1 ’ 

independent after the World War. It extends from the 

Gulf of Finland to the Arctic Circle. Norway forms the northern 

boundary, Russia the eastern, and on the west it borders on the Baltic 

Sea, the Gulf of Bothnia and Sweden. The area, 149,586 square miles, 

is a little larger than that of Montana, and the population in 1921 was 

3,368,000, 


346 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


347 


The surface is low and level and the country contains thousands 
of lakes. A large part of the land is heavily forested, but the open 
spaces have a fertile soil and agriculture is the most important industry. 
The climate is characterized by long, cold winters and short, hot sum¬ 
mers, during which vegetation grows rapidly and large crops of rye, 
oats, wheat and potatoes are raised. Facilities for grazing are excel¬ 
lent and dairying is an important branch of agriculture. Lumbering 
and the manufacture of lumber products furnish employment for a 
large number. Other manufactures include flour and grist mill products 
and textiles. 

Helsingfors, the capital, has over 189,000 inhabitants and is the 
most important city. Viborg and Kronstadt are the other seaports. 
Kronstadt was formerly the port for Petrograd and enjoyed a thriving 
trade. However, the completion of the ship canal to Petrograd and the 
decline of Russian industry have deprived it of much of its commercial 
importance. 

The Finns are a highly moral and industrious people. In appearance 
they bear a resemblance to the Mongolians, to whom they are dis¬ 
tantly related. Education is general and all children of school age 
are compelled to attend school. The country is making rapid progress 
and has excellent prospects for becoming commercially strong in the 
near future. 


QUESTIONS 

What commercial advantages have the Baltic States? What must be their 
chief exports? 

Why can large crops be raised in a country so far north as Finland? 

Why are the Finns likely to succeed as a nation? 



PETROGRAD PROM ACROSS THE NEVA 














Chapter XIII 
RUSSIA 


Position and 
Extent 


The country of Russia occupies one-half of 
Europe and Asia, contains one-seventh of the 
land of the globe and, in area, ranks next to 
the British Empire. With a few exceptions, it is a vast plain, 
extending from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean — a distance of 
6000 miles—and from the Black Sea, Persia, and China on the 
south to the Arctic Ocean on the north. Its territory is com- 
pacted into one great land mass between the different parts 
of which there are no obstructive barriers. The area is 6,320,000 
square miles, and the population is over 103,768,000. The entire 
region is in the cool temperate and frigid zones. The country com¬ 
prises Russia in Europe, Siberia, Trans-Caucasia, and Trans-Caspia. 

This division comprises about one-half of Europe, 
and includes about one-fourth of the area of the Em¬ 
pire. It is a vast plain, extending from the Black 
Sea to the Arctic Ocean, and from the Baltic States to the Ural 
Mountains. The northern third is too cold for agricultural purposes. 
The middle portion is covered with heavy forests of valuable hard 
and soft woods. The southern part was formerly the granary of 
Europe. Rice, oats, wheat and flax were raised in large quantities, 
and previous to the World War Russian wheat competed with that 
from the United States in the markets of Europe. The Soviet Gov¬ 
ernment-disorganized the system of tilling the soil which had been 
in vogue for generations, and since 1917 Russia has not produced 

enough w T heat to supply the needs of her own people. The methods 

349 


Russia in 
Europe 


350 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


employed are primitive and the rate of production is low. Most of the 
Russian farmers, or peasants, are too ignorant to compete successfully 
with the farmers of Western Europe or the United States. 

The mineral resources are abundant. Coal is found in 
Minerals p 0 | an( j anc j the basin of the Don. Iron ore occurs 

in Poland and various other localities, and gold and platinum are 



A FLOUR MILL ON THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY 


Manufactures 


found in the Ural Mountains, where nine-tenths of the world’s 
supply of platinum is obtained. 

Manufactures are rapidly on the increase, and 
now most of the iron and steel goods and rail¬ 
way supplies are made within the country. There has also been 
a large advance in the manufacture of textiles, and Russia has 
become an exporter of the coarser grades of cotton and linen 
fabrics. 












COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


351 


Siberia is a vast plain which climatically can be 
SIBERIA j n t 0 three sections. The agricultural section 

of the south, the forest and mineral belt occupying the middle por¬ 
tion, and the frozen tundras of the north. The agricultural district 
has a warm and somewhat arid climate, but is well suited to grow¬ 
ing cereals, and most other crops of the temperate latitude. For 
its adaptation to hard grained wheat it rivals Minnesota, Dakota 
and Manitoba. Some of the agricultural sections also produce oats 
and rice in abundance. The forest belt is a series ot vast resources 
which have not yet been developed. In the near future this region 
w r ill furnish the timber supply for Europe. In area, the forest belt 
is second only to that of North America. Gold and iron abound. 
Gold mines are also worked along the Amoor River in the northern 
division, which in other respects is a worthless waste of frozen 
tundra. 

This division of the Empire lies between 
TRANS-CAUCASIA the C aucaS us Mountains and Persia. It 

contains numerous fertile valleys and is almost entirely devoted to 
agriculture. It is also rich in petroleum. Eaku on the Caspian 
Sea is the center of the oil fields, the annual output of which is a 
little more than that of the United States. The oil is transported 
by rail, steamer and pipe lines. Copper, salt, iron, coal and 
manganese are also tound in Trans-Caucasia, and aie mined to a 
limited extent. 

This division embraces Turkestan, and the 
TRANS-CASPIA reo .j on to the north, deluding the basins of 

the Ann and Daria Rivers. Lack of moisture renders a large part 
of the region unproductive, and none of its resources have been 
well developed. The leading manufactures are cotton and silk 

fabrics and leather goods. 

The many long and sluggish rivers ot Euro- 
Transportation p ean Russia furnish an extensive system of 



TOWER OF IVAN VELIKI, THE GREAT BELL, AND THE KREMLIN, MOSCOW 



















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


353 


waterways, the Volga and its tributaries alone having over 7000 
miles. These rivers have been extensively canalized, and also 
connected by an extensive system of canals, so that there are now 
almost 50,000 miles of inland waterways in the country. The ease 
with which canals could be constructed delayed the building of 
railways to a late date. 

Petrograd and Riga on the Baltic, Archangel on the White, 
and Odessa on the Black Sea, are important ports, but the 



Odessa has an outlet to the sea only through waters controlled by 
other, governments. Previous to the war with Japan, Vladivostock 
and Port Arthur, which was leased from China, were the important 
ports on the Pacific. 

The railway system of Russia embraces about 40,000 miles, 
all of which is under the control of the state. All of the 
leading cities of European Russia are connected by rail, and a line 
has been built from Baku through the entire length of Trans- 
Caspia ; but the greatest achievement in railway building was in 
the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway from Petrograd 
to Vladivostock and Port Arthur, a distance of 6000 miles. The 













MOSCOW 



















COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


355 


completion of this road opened to settlement and usefulness the vast 
Siberian territory with all of its agricultural, forest, and mineral 
resources, and placed the ports of China and Japan within sixteen 
days 7 journey of Western Europe. If placed upon the map of North 
America, this road would extend from the extreme point of the Penin¬ 
sula of Alaska to Nova Scotia. It is the longest completed trunk 
line of railway in the world. 

In addition to the seaports already mentioned, the follow- 

Cities j n g cities are of importance: Petrograd, former capital, in 
1920 had a population of 705,000. It is situated on the Neva, and is 
the farthest north of any large city. The ship canal, completed in 
1885, makes it a seaport, and it is also connected by canals with the 
large rivers of European Russia. Petrograd is an important railway 
center, and the commercial and financial center for the northern part 
of the country. Important manufactures of cotton and linen goods, 
also of iron and steel, are located here. Moscow, the capital, is the 
most important railway center, and one of the largest manufacturing 
and commercial cities of Russia. Astrakhan is the center of trade 
for the country to the southeast. Baku is the great petroleum market, 
and Odessa is the most important port on the Black Sea. 

Nijni-Novgorod is the city in which the great annual fair is held. 
In July of each year, the merchants from Western Europe and from 
Asia gather at this city for the purpose of buying and selling and 
exchanging goods. Nijni-Novgorod is located on the great trade route 
where the metals and other wares of the north meet the products of 
the south, fish from the Caspian Sea, and tea, cotton, silk, and other 
products from Persia, China and Japan. This fair brings together 
about 200,000 people from all parts of the continent, and almost 
everything in the line of merchandise is offered for sale. Before the 
revolution of 1917 the total value of the transactions reached about 
$ 100 , 000 , 000 . 


356 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Commerce Most of the foreign trade is with Great Britain and 
Germany. The exports are cereals, furs, platinum, 
and petroleum, and the imports are raw textiles, coal, and man- 
factures. In her trade with the United States, Russia sells us 
wools, skins, and furs and buys of us raw cotton and agricultural 
machinery. Our trade with European Russia amounts to about 
$51,000,000 annually, about half of which is exports. Russia's 
trade with the United States is small, but there is greater oppor¬ 
tunity for the extension of American trade within this country 
than with almost any other. Russia needs our manufactures. 
The completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, connecting at 
Vladivostock and Port Arthur with American lines of Pacific steam¬ 
ers, makes transportation convenient and comparatively cheap, and 
the vast resources of Russia, second only to those of the United 
States and China, afford the basis of an extensive commerce. 

QUESTIONS 

How does Russia compare, in area and population, with the United States? 

What caused railroad construction to be so long delayed in Russia? What 
led to the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway? 

What has made Nijni-Novgorod an important commercial center? Name 
and locate the other important commercial centers of Russia. 

Why is Russia’s trade with Great Britain and Germany larger than that 
with the United States? 



Kozni 




























































Chapter XIV 


INDIA, CEYLON AND THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 

British India includes the peninsula between the Arabian 

INDIA 

Sea and the Bay of Bengal, and the province of Burniah 
extending to the east and north. Its total area is over one-half, 
and its population about three and one-half times that of the 
United States. It is the most densely populated possession of 
the British Empire. India is separated from the countries at the 
north by the great barrier of the Himalaya and the Hindu-Kush 
mountains. Through these extend the Khinbnr and Bolan passes, 
affording communication with the interior. Its communication 
with other countries is almost entirely by sea. The moun¬ 
tains and the foot-hills slope down to the valley of the Ganges 
and Brahmapootra on the east, and to that of the Indus on 
the west side of the country. South of these valleys lies the 
Plateau of Deccan, forming the greater part of the peninsula. 

In latitude, the country corresponds with that part of America 
extending from New York City to the mouth of the Orinoco River. 
The climate is tropical, but the high altitude of the northern prov¬ 
inces gives them a much lower mean annual temperature than the 
other portions of the country. The rainfall is abundant, but very 
unevenly distributed. Some districts among the Himalayas have 
the heaviest rainfall in the world, and in occasional localities more 
rain falls in a day than in the best watered portions of the United 
States in a year. On account of the monsoons, the country is 
subject to a wet and a dry season, and in many sections irrigation 
is necessary to the successful growing ot crops. 


357 


358 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


India is pre-eminently an agricultural country, 
Agriculture anc [ more than two-thirds of the inhabitants are 

engaged in tilling the soil. The land is divided into small hold- 
ings, and the most primitive methods are in vogue, consequently 
the people receive poor returns for the labor expended. Rice, 
wheat, sugar cane, millet and maize are the principal food prod¬ 
ucts. Jute, cotton, opium, tea and oil-seeds are grown for 
export. The tea is of excellent quality, and has now nearly dis- 



THE WATER FRONT, BOMBAY 


placed that of China and Japan in English markets. Silk is grown 
to some extent, and its culture is rapidly increasing. The coffee 
crop is also one of prime importance. 

__ _ Nearly all of the manufactures are in the 

Manufactures + e . rri TT . , 

nature of hand crafts. The Hindoos are re¬ 
markably skilful in the weaving of fine cotton fabrics, rugs, car¬ 
pets and shawls, and in the carving of wood and ivory. The 
products of their handiwork are sought by the wealthy of all lands, 
and some articles, like the Cashmere shawls, command fabulous 













COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


359 


prices. Recently the English factory system has been introduced, 
and now constitutes an important feature of the cotton industry on 
the west coast, and of the jute manufacture in and around Calcutta. 

The Ganges is navigable for about a thousand 
Transportation m jj eSj the Brahmapootra is the important 

waterway for small vessels, and the Irrawaddy is navigable for 
seven hundred miles. There are upwards of 25,000 miles of 


fr 



STATION OF THE GREAT BENGAL RAILWAY, BENGAL 

railway connecting all the important towns of the interior 
with each other and with the nearest seaports. These tacilities 
enable the provinces in the interior to dispose of their products at 
the coast at a reasonable profit. Mail and telegraph facilities are 
also adequate to the needs of the country. All these conditions are 
largely due to the administration of the British Government, which 
has taken great interest in the development ot public works. 



















"360 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Calcutta, the capital, near the mouth of the Ganges, with 
Cities over 000,000 inhabitants, is the largest city and the 

leading commercial and financial center. Bombay, on the west 
coast, is the leading port for commerce passing through the Suez 
Canal. Madras, on the eastern coast, has an important trade in 
cotton and hides. Mandalay and Rangoon are the most important 
commercial centers of Burma. 

The foreign commerce of India amounts to about 
Commerce $1^270,000,000 a year, which, considering its popu¬ 
lation, is small. This condition is largely due to the abject poverty 
of a large number of the people. The exports are cotton, wheat, 
rice, opium, timber and manufactured goods, consisting of textiles, 
rugs, carpets, shawls and carved wood and ivory. About seventy 
per cent of the trade is with Great Britain. China and Germany 
have the next largest shares. India imports kerosene from this 
country, and furnishes us with indigo, some textiles and opium. 

These comprise several British colonies on and 
around the Straits of Malacca. The most impor¬ 
tant are Singapore, Penang and Malacca. The 
cities in the Straits have a large transport trade, that of Singapore 
amounting to about $400,000,000 a year. The largest tin mines 
in the world are near this port, and most of their product is 
exported to the United States. Other important exports are 
rubber, gutta percha, spices, tapioca and rattan. The imports 
are cotton cloth, rice and opium. 


THE STRAITS 
SETTLEMENTS 


QUESTIONS. 

In what lines of manufacture are the Hindoos especially skilful? To 
what countries are most of their manufactured products sent? 

How do the buildings in the cities of India compare with those in the 
large cities of Europe and the United States? 

What commercial and industrial benefits has Great Britain conferred 
upon India? 


Chapter XV 


CHINA 


POSITION AND 
EXTENT 


China includes China proper, Manchuria, Mon¬ 
golia, Eastern Turkestan, and Thibet. It is the 
largest country of Asia. Its area is 4,000,000 
square miles, or one and one-third times that of the United States, 
and its population is about 400,000,000. China proper has about 
one-half of the area of the United States, and a population of about 
245,220,000, being more densely populated than any other country 
in the world. Texas, if all of the inhabitants of the United States 
were crowded within her boundaries, would not contain as many 
people to the square mile. In latitude, surface and climate, China 
closely resembles the United States, but the influence of the mon¬ 
soons makes it possible to raise crops suited to both the temperate 
and tropical regions. 

Agriculture Agriculture is the great industry of China and 

most of the inhabitants are engaged in it. Every 
foot of tillable soil is in a high state of cultivation. The land is 
divided into small tracts, of a few acres each, and the country has 
the appearance of a vast garden. All work is performed by hand 
labor and the most primitive methods and implements are em¬ 
ployed, yet abundant crops are raised. In many localities irriga¬ 
tion is practised, the water being raised by means of wheels turned 
by hand or by animal power. The first wheel raises the water to 
a tank from which it is lifted to the second by another wheel; and 
so on until the highest level is reached. From here the water is 
distributed down the slope. Rice is grown on the lowlands of the 
coast, and wheat, peas, and millet wherever they can be cultivated. 


362 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Rice is the most important food crop, and China contributes one- 
half of the world’s supply. Silk is also extensively raised and cot¬ 
ton is quite generally raised in the southern part of the country along 
the low coast of the Yangtse. There are no large fields as in the 
United States, but each garden contains a few plants, and these, in 
the aggregate, constitute a considerable supply, all of which is con¬ 
sumed at home. 



PACKING BRICK TEA 

The mineral resources are extensive and valu- 
Mineral Resources a ble, but they have not been developed. Bitu¬ 
minous and anthracite coal of excellent quality are found in all 
the provinces. The coal fields of the country are larger than those 
of Europe combined, and some authorities think they are the most 
extensive in the world. These great deposits of coal assure the de¬ 
velopment of extensive manufacturing industries when conditions 
for such enterprises are ripe. The country also contains large 
deposits of iron ore, some of which are near the coal. Foreign 









COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


363 


capital is seeking to develop these resources, and before the World 
War, Germany, Great Britain, and Japan had made a successful be¬ 
ginning, Germany was dispossessed of her Chinese concessions, and 
at the Convention on Limitation of Armaments in 1921 Japan agreed 
to retire from Chinese territory. Besides coal, copper, tin, lead and 
silver are found, and mined to some extent. The abundance of por¬ 
celain clay of the finest quality has made China one of the leading 
countries in the manufacture of porcelain ware. 

Most of the manufactures are home industries, 
Manufactures anc j are carr i e j on exclusively by hand labor. 

The silk and cotton fabrics are nearly all made in this way, but 
recently a few factories, under foreign management, have been estab¬ 
lished. These are for reeling silk and spinning cotton. China silks 
are noted for their fine texture and delicate finish. Porcelain, or china- 
ware, is also an important manufacture, and in many homes rhea, the 
fiber of Chinese grass, is woven into light fabrics for summer wear. 

Since the importation of firearms was prohibited by the Allied 
Powers in 1898, a number of manufactories have been established for 
the purpose of supplying these to the army. All of these factories 
are government concessions, and are under the supervision of European 
mechanics. 


The large rivers constitute the important water- 
Transportation wa y S into the interior. The Yangtse is naviga¬ 
ble for over a thousand miles, the Hoangho is obstructed by 
bars, but is navigable for small craft, and the Sikiang on the 
south furnishes the outlet for the country tributary to Canton 
and Hongkong. Canals are numerous, but when compared with 
those of Europe or the L T nited States are poor. The Grand Canal 
extends from Hangchow to Tientsin, a distance of 700 miles, and 
is still in a usable condition throughout most of its length, though 
it was constructed more than a thousand years ago. Roads are so 
poor that transportation through the interior is well nigh impos- 


364 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


sible, and there are over 7000 miles of railway in the entire 
country. The most important line—a branch of the Trans-Siberia 
Railway—extends to Port Arthur. The innovations consequent 
upon the introduction of railways make their construction a slow 
process. 

Pekin, the capital, is significant only as a political center. 
Cities gj nce Bie Roxer outbreak in 1898, the representatives of 
foreign governments have been granted special privileges for pro¬ 
tecting the quarter in which they reside, and have built a city, 



CUSTOM HOUSE, TIENTSIN 


resembling in structure and plan, those found in Europe and 

America. Tientsin is the seaport of Pekin, and has a large trade. 

Shanghai is the most important center of trade with the United 

States and Japan, and Canton, the largest city of the Empire, has 

in connection with Homdvon<r, a large trade with Great Britain. 

The inland cities are of but little commercial importance. 

~ The trade of the inland provinces is small. The 

Commerce . . , _ 1 . . . .. 

region is sparsely settled, the inhabitants are poor, 

and the difficulty of transportation prevents extensive exportation 

or importation of merchandise. Skins, wool and musk are ob- 









COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


365 


tained from Thibet. Mongolia is good grazing region, and sup¬ 
plies the camels required in caravan trade with Russia. Manchuria 
is a good grazing and farming district, and exports millet and animal 
products to China proper. 


The great bulk of foreign commerce is carried on by China 
through open, or treaty, ports, of which Tientsin, Shanghai and Canton 
are the most important. The exports are tea, raw silk, porcelain, silk 
goods and such hand work as lacquer ware and carved wood and ivory, 
in which the Chinese are remarkably skilful. The leading imports 
are cotton goods, opium, rice, wheat flour, kerosene, silk, metals and 
machinery. Nearly one-fifth of the tea goes to the United States and 
about one-eleventh goes to Great Britain. Nearly half of the foreign 
trade is through Hongkong, and the largest share is with Great Britain. 
Most all of this is in the hands of European agents residing in Hong¬ 
kong or Canton. 

A large carrying trade is maintained with Russia, and, previous 
to the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, caravans made 
overland trips as far as Morocco. The principal article of this trade 
is tea which is pressed into bricks for convenience in transportation, 
aiid also to meet the tastes of the Russians, who have been accustomed 
to obtaining it in this form for many years. 


The trade with the United States is steadily increasing. China 
imports from us kerosene, wheat flour, machinery and hardware, and 
exports to us tea, silk and wares peculiar to their manufacture. The 
American trade nearly all goes through the Pacific ports, Seattle and 

San Francisco, and lines of steamers are maintained between these 

• 

cities and the Chinese ports. 

The Chinese belong to the yellow race. They are 
ine reop e conservative, industrious and frugal. They work 
long hours and for low wages, and while some acquire means and 
a few become wealthy, the great mass of the people are in abject 


366 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


poverty. Aside from the inherited right to the throne, any office 
in the Empire is open to the humblest citizen, if by ability in the 
execution of public trusts he can show himself worthy of it. Pro¬ 
motion in the Government service is by examination, and only the 
ablest scholars succeed in securing positions. 

The Chinese are the representatives of the oldest existing 
civilization. When the nations of the West were in a state of 
barbarism, these people were probably as far advanced as they are 
today, and for more than 2000 years they were considered the 
only civilized people of the Far East. They afford the only illus¬ 
tration of people who, for such a length of time, have neither 
advanced or gone backward. This remarkable characteristic is 
largely due to the element of ancestor worship in their religious 
belief. They adhere closely to the institutions and customs of 
their forefathers, and are not willing to introduce changes which 
will do away with, or modify, this ancient usage. Consequently 
they are slow to adopt the customs of western civilization. 

This is a small island at the mouth of the Sikins: 
near Canton, and has an area of about thirty-nine 
square miles. It is a British colony and is the most important 
commercial port of Asia. It is an important port of call, and has 
an extensive transient trade, as it is frequented by the ships of all 
nations. The commerce is in the hands of Englishmen, and Chinese 
who have become British subjects. 


HONGKONG 


QUESTIONS. 

Compare the Chinese Empire with the United States in area, climate, 
products”and population. 

Considering the Chinese to be the oldest existing civilized nation, 
account for the backward state of the country, and the lack of progress. 

How do means of transportation in China compare with those in other 
civilized countries ? 

What is the present prospect for commerce between the United States 
and China ? What reasons have you for your opinion ? 

• Compare China with the United States in area, climate, products and 
population. 


Chapter XVI 


JAPAN 


POSITION AND 
EXTENT 


The empire of Japan extends along the coast, from 
the twenty-second to the fifty-first parallel of 
north latitude. The greater part of the empire 
comprises the islands of Formosa, Kiusiu, Hondo, Shikoku, Yezo, the 
southern part of Sakalhalin and Korea. Formosa was obtained from 
China in the war of 1894 and 1895. Hondo is the largest and exceeds 
all the other islands in area. In all, there are 487 islands worthy of 
notice. The area of Japan exceeds 260,700 square miles. It is a little 
less than the combined areas of California and Colorado. In 1920 the 
population was over 77,284,000, more than half that of the United 
States. 

The surface is mountainous, and Hondo is characterized by a main 
mountain range, extending the length of the island, and having upon 
either side lower parallel ranges. The Rainfall is abundant, and the 
continual weathering of the rocks has covered the valleys with a deep 
and fertile soil. The climate in the extreme south is sub-tropical and 
temperate in the other portion of the empire. 

The large population makes it necessary to bring 
gncu t ure j.j ie go q ^- 0 ^ ie highest state of cultivation, and 
also to occupy every square foot of tillable land, which, owing to 
the mountains, does not exceed one-sixth of the area of the em¬ 
pire. Fish refuse is used for fertilizer and abundant crops are 
raised. Rice is the leading food crop, and is grown along the 
coast and in the lowlands of the west. The other important food 
crops in order are wheat, rye, barley, and beans. Tea is raised in 

the southern islands, and the lacquer tree, from the sap of which 

367 


368 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


the lacquer varnish is obtained, is extensively cultivated. The 
mulberry tree is cultivated throughout Hondo, except in the 
extreme northern part, and silk-raising is one of the most impor¬ 
tant industries. Formosa is the leading camphor-producing country 
and more than half of the world’s supply comes from this island. 



• WOMEN SPINNING AND WEAVING SILK 


Mineral Resources 


Coal, iron and copper are the most impor¬ 
tant minerals. The out-put of coal and iron 
is steadily increasing and coal markets have been established in 
China, the Straits Settlements and the Philippines. The most 
important mines are in Yezo and Kiushiu. An excellent quality 
of copper is also found, and its mining has developed mto quite 
an important industry. 












COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


369 


J Textiles constitute the leading manufactures, 

Manufactures , . , , , ; 

and give employment to over 1,000,000 opera¬ 
tives. Seventy thousand of these are engaged in the cotton mills, 
of which there are now over seventy in operation. Large quanti¬ 
ties of silk are also made. The raw material is exported from 
India, and only coarser goods are made. Much of both the cotton 
and the silk, however, is woven in hand looms in the homes. The 



THE HARBOR, NAGASAKI 

best straw-matting in the world is made both for home consump¬ 
tion and for export. Woolens are also manufactured to some 
extent. - 

The Japanese are skilful in the manufacture of art goods, and 
in making wood, metal, pottery and small wares, but these are all 
home industries and are of minor importance in the commercial 
development of the country. Since the admission of foreigners to 
the country, the Japanese have made remarkable advancement in 











COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


370 


the adaptation of the methods and machinery of western nations. 
Their manufacturing industries are rapidly developing, and they 
now constitute an important factor in the commercial and industrial 
life of the Empire. 



Transportation 


The carriage roads are in rather poor condi¬ 
tion for the transportation of merchandise, 
though the light jinrikishas, which are two-wheeled carts drawn 
by men, traverse them without difficulty. Most of the cities and 
productive valleys are within easy reach of the sea, where good 
harbors are numerous. There are 
about 4000 miles of railway in 
the Empire, connecting the most 
important towns. Telegraph, tel¬ 
ephone and mail services are also 
good. 

Cities ^okio, the capital and 
largest city, has over a 
million inhabitants, and is an im¬ 
portant commercial port. Yoko¬ 
hama and Kobe are centers of the 
largest foreign trade. Nagasaki 
has a fine harbor and is an impor¬ 
tant coal market, and Hakodate 
on Yezo is the commercial center 
for the north, and has a flourish¬ 
ing trade in coal and fish. These and a number of small cities are 
treaty ports and are open to the vessels of all nations. 

Commerce ^ a k an ^ as an important trade with foreign nations 
and it is constantly increasing. The leading 
imports are raw cotton, iron and steel, wool, flax, hemp, jute, jute 
textiles, sugar, petroleum, machinery and firearms. The leading 
exports are silk, raw and manufactured, cotton yarn, tea, coal 


RIVER FRONT, TOKIO 





COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


371 


and copper. Rice, porcelain, straw goods, matting and small 
wares are also exported. Great Britain furnishes the largest part 
of the imports, with the United States standing second, British 
India third, Germany fourth, and China fifth. The United States 
takes most of the exports, of which tea constitutes the largest 
share. Most of the merchandise enters the country by San Fran- 



A VIEW IN YOKOHAMA 


cisco and Seattle. The yearly foreign trade amounts to about 
$590,000,000, about three-fifths of which is with the United States. 
The yearly exports to this country amount to about $204,000,000, 
and the imports from it $102,500,000. 

The People Japanese, as do the Chinese, belong to the 

Mongolian or yellow race, but in nearly all respects 
they are the opposites of the Chinese. They are small of stature, 
wide awake, and aggressive. They are quick to see advantages 














372 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


KOREA 


derived from the adoption of the customs and methods of western 

nations, and in the last few decades have made wonderful progress 

in government, education, industries and commerce. For this 

* 

reason they have been styled "the Yankees of the East,” and Japan 
is also called the w Asiatic Great Britain.” There is a constantly 
increasing demand for American products in their country, and this 
demand the American merchants and manufacturers are striving to 

O 

supply. 

Previous to the Chinese-Japanese War in 1895, 
Korea was a dependency of China, but at that time it 
became independent. It is often referred to as "the Hermit King¬ 
dom,” and from an industrial and commercial point of view it is of 
little importance. Its area is about equal to that of Minnesota, and 
its population is about 10,000,000. It is an important strategic 
point and the attempt of Russia to secure a foothold in the country, 
together with her refusal to evacuate Manchuria, according to agree- 
ment, led to the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-05. As a result 
of that conflict Korea has become a Japanese dependency. The 
country is without any important cities. Seoul is the capital, and 
Mushampo and Fusan are the most important seaports. 


QUESTIONS. 

Why is intensive farming .so generally practised in Japan? 

IIow do the mineral resources of Japan compare with those of China 
in extent and value? In regard to their development? 

Account for the rapid progress that Japan has made since 1850. 

In what respects do the Japanese differ from the Chinese? 

Why does the United States have so large a proportion of Japan’s 
foreign trade? 


Chapter XVII 


OTHER ASIATIC COUNTRIES 


„ These occupy part of the Indo-China 

SIAM AND THE ™ • i V • *7 , * 

FRENCH POSSESSIONS Peninsula. Siam is an independent 

kingdom, and the French colonies in¬ 
clude Tongking, Annam, Cambodia and Lower Cochin-China. The 
most important industry of the whole region is raising rice. In the 
deltas of the Mekong, more than half a million tons are grown yearly. 
This is exported to Hongkong and Singapore. Pepper, other spices, 
tropical fruits and teak timber are the other important exports. The 
imports are manufactures, especially textiles and machinery. 

These are two quasi-independent states, 

AFGHANISTAN , - ^ ... , j r , . , , 

AND BALUCHISTAN , ’ . _ H 

Turkestan and the sea. Afghanistan con¬ 
tains some of the richest mineral deposits on the continent. Both 
countries are separated from India by mountain ranges which can 
be traversed only through passes. The climate is cool-temperate, 
and the leading products are cereals and peas and beans. Most of 
the inhabitants are wandering tribes, and there are no settled 
industries. These countries are important on account of their 
position, and have for years formed a " bone of contention” 
between Russia and Great Britain. The mountains are crossed 
through two important passes, the Khaibar, connecting Peshawur 
in India with Jalalabad and Kabul, and now traversed by a rail¬ 
road. The Bolan Pass also contains a branch of the same line of 
railway extending as far as Kandahar. Considerable trade passes 
over these routes. Both countries are under the protectorate of 
Great Britain. 

373 


374 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


Persia occupies the greater part of the Plateau of Iran. 

p'C’TJCT A 1 n 1 

About one-third of the country is desert, but the 
valleys and lowlands receive enough moisture from the rains and 
the mountain streams to be productive and abundant crops of food¬ 
stuffs are raised. The country is also quite rich in minerals, and 
in past ages mines of tin, copper, lead and silver were worked 
with profit. Tobacco, small fruits, opium, wool and silk are the 
most important products for export. The Persians are noted for 
their skill in weaving rugs and carpets, which are sold in American 
and European markets at fabulous prices. There are also valuable 
pearl fisheries in the Persian Gulf. Generally the industries are 
unimportant as the country is in a backward condition. Tabriz 
is the center of the manufacture of rugs and shawls. Bushire and 
Bender-Abbas are the seaports and Trabizond is the center of 
Russian trade. 

The East Indies include nearly all the isl- 
THE EAST INDIES ands of the Ma]ay p en i nsu i a . Most of 

them are Dutch Colonies and they have an excellent administra¬ 
tion. The most important islands are Java, Borneo, Sumatra and 
New Guinea. North Borneo belongs to the British Empire, West 
New Guinea is Dutch and the eastern half is divided between the 
British and the Germans. All of these islands produce tropical 
fruits and spices. Java and Sumatra lead in the production of 
coffee, sugar-cane, tobacco, rice, indigo and pepper. The coffee 
of this region is celebrated in both Europe and America. The 
trade of the islands is in the hands of middlemen, most of whom 
*re Chinese. 

QUESTIONS. 

Of what commercial advantage are her Asiatic colonies to France? 

Of what value are the Dutch East Indies to Netherlands? 

Why is Great Britain especially interested in Afghanistan ? 

With what countries does Persia have the most extensive trade? 


Chapter XVIII 


AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 


pn<;TT T nN anfi Australia extends from the eleventh to the 
EXTENT fortieth parallel of south latitude and from the 

one hundred thirteenth to the one hundred fifty- 
fourth degree of west longitude. Its greatest length from east to 
west is 2860 miles, and from north to south 1600 miles. Its area 
is a little less than that of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, 
and the population in 1921 was 5,436,794. 

xVustralia is the highest portion of a partially submerged 
plateau, which, at an average depth of six hundred feet, extends 
around the continent for a considerable distance. The mountains 
are near the coast and from them the land slopes gradually to the 
great interior plain that constitutes the larger part of the continent. 
In the center of this plain there are some low ranges of hills, but 
with this exception it is nearly level, and in the south it extends to 
the coast. The highest mountains are in the eastern part of the 
continent, in general appearance these mountains resemble the 
Appalachians, being the worn down remains of an ancient system. 
Some one has compared the continent to a huge plate, high around 
the edges and gradually sloping to the great flat interior. The 
comparison is a happy one. 

The streams flowing eastward into the Pacific are short and 
rapid, but those flowing south and west are longer and flow more 
quietly. Most of these lose themselves in the salt lakes and marshes 
of the interior. The Murray-Darling system, flowing into the 
sea on the south, is navigable for some distance. The rivers on 
the west are short and small. 


S75 


376 


commerce and industry 


The large body of water surrounding the continent 
Climate exerts an equalizing influence over the temperature, 
yet the summers are extremely hot, owing to the vast expanse of 
land from east to west upon which the sun’s rays fall vertically 
several hours in the day. During the winter the interior becomes 
quite cold, and the land winds are several degrees below the sur¬ 
rounding atmosphere over the sea. Frost seldom occurs between 
the coast and the mountains. 

The continent lies within the belt of the southeast 

J-) • n 11 

trades, and the eastern coast secures an abundance of 
rain. On the inner slope of these mountains there is a narrow 
strip of country-having an annual rainfall of about twenty inches. 
From this semi-arid belt the rain gradually diminishes until the 
great interior desert is reached. This great region is from five to 
seven degrees wide and occupies about one-half the continent. 
Its greatest elongation is from east to west, and it extends north¬ 
ward from the Great Australian Bight to the twentieth parallel. 
The southern coast east of the Bight and a small area in the 
extreme southwest are well watered, and the most northerly section 
east of the Gulf of Carpentaria has a heavy rainfall. The rainfall 
is very unevenly distributed, and at irregular intervals, sometimes 
extending over a period of several years — large areas suffer 
from disastrous droughts. 

Australia is so far removed from the other conti- 
Resources nen ts that its animal and vegetable life are 
unlike those of any other part of the world. Many of the plants 
bear close resemblance to those of past geologic ages, such as those 
of the coal period. Where the rainfall is abundant heavy forests 
are found. Some of the gum trees approach the Big Trees of Cali¬ 
fornia in size, growing to a height of nearly 400 feet. Mingled 
with these are smaller trees, tree ferns, and club mosses of 
gigantic size. Most of the foliage has a leathery structure; the 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


377 


leaves of some plants turn their edges instead of their surface 
towards the sun and earth. In the semi-arid and arid regions 
varieties of rapid growing grasses are found. 

Aoriculture ^he § rasses form excellent fodder for sheep, and 

the climate of the semi-arid regions is well suited 
to the requirements of these animals; therefore, we find sheep¬ 
raising the most important agricultural industry in all the prov¬ 
inces. Most of the flocks are merinos, and Australia has become 
the largest wool-producing country of the world. The wool is of 
excellent quality and is exported to all the leading countries en¬ 
gaged in the manufacture of woolen goods. The annual out-put 
exceeds 500,000,000 pounds or nearly one-third the world’s supply. 

Hides, tallow, and fresh meat are also important animal prod¬ 
ucts for export. The meat is frozen and transported in refriger¬ 
ator ships, reaching England in an excellent state of preservation. 

Grapes for raisins are raised in Victoria and New South Wales. 
Sugar cane is raised in Queensland and cereals for home use are 
grown in all the provinces. The forests supply a good quality of 
hard-wood lumber for export, and some gums and important drugs. 

Minerals mos ^ important mineral and, next to 

wool, constitutes the most valuable export. Before 
the discovery of the metal in South Africa, the Australian gold 
mines were the richest known. The most important mines are in 
Victoria. Copper, silver, and iron ore are also found, but the iron 
has not been worked to any extent. Coal is found in New South 
Wales and New Zealand and is exported to quite an extent. Aus¬ 
tralian coal was formerly in general use in the southern part of 
California, but the discovery of petroleum in that locality has 
largely done away with the necessity for coal. 

r Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is the largest city 
1 eS of Australia and has about 725,000 inhabitants. Melbourr \ 
the capital of Victoria, has a population of over 650,000. It carries 


378 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


extensive foreign trade. Adelaide, in South Australia, Sidney, 
in New South Wales, and Brisbane, in Queensland, are the other 
important cities in the eastern portion of the continent. Hobart 
is the leading city of Tasmania, and Perth is the most important 
town on the western coast. 

All the eastern provinces and South Australia are well supplied 
with railways. They connect all the important towns on the coast 
and a number of lines extend inland from 300 to 500 miles. Tele¬ 
graph lines are also found in these provinces, and a line extends over 
the continent from Adelaide to Palmerston on the northern coast. 

Australia is one of the most valuable colonies of 
Commerce Great Britain and the leading trade is with that 
country, which has about three-fourths of the foreign commerce. 
The United States is second in importance. The exports are gold, 
wool and mutton. The imports are manufactured goods, hard¬ 
ware and machinery. The entire foreign trade amounts to about 
$650,000,000 a year, of which a little over $300,000,000 are ex¬ 
ports. The annual trade with the United States is about $75,000,- 
000. Our exports to Australia consist of tobacco, lumber, leather, 
rail way-supplies and coal-oil. Our principal import from there is 
wool. 


NEW ZEALAND 


The Dominion of New Zealand consists of thirteen 
groups of islands including the Mandatory of the 
Samoan Islands. The total area is 104,910 square miles, and the popu¬ 
lation in 1921 was 1,070,910. The Dominion of New Zealand is about 
1200 miles southeast of Australia. North Island (44,130 sq. mi.), 
South Island (58,120 sq. mi.), and Stewart Island (66 sq. mi.) having 
a length from north to south of 1100 miles, comprise the greater 
part of the Dominion. A large portion of the surface is mountainous. 
The climate varies considerably in the different divisions, owing to 
the extent north and south. In general, it is mild with abundance of 
rain. 














































































































































380 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


The country is pastoral rather than agricultural. The chief ex¬ 
ports are wool, frozen meat, butter and cheese, hides and pelts, and 
gold. The imports include clothing, boots and shoes, coal, sacks, 
textiles, tobacco and other manufactured products. The foreign trade 
in 1920 amounted to £108,037,774, of which £18,556,300 was with the 
United States. 


QUESTIONS 

What portions of Australia are suited to agricultural purposes ? What 
portions have valuable mineral deposits ? 

What has made Australia tlie leading wool-producing country ? In 
what other industries does she excel ? 

By what people was Australia settled? How do they compare in 
habits and customs with the people of the United States? 

What American ports are engaged in trade with Australia ? Is this 
trade increasing? 

What effect has the completion of the Panama Canal had upon our trade 
with Australia? 


Chapter XIX 


AFRICA. 

Surface ^ r * ca ex ^ en( ^ s from the thirty-seventh parallel of 
north latitude to the thirty-second parallel of south 
latitude, and is about one and one-third times as large as North 
America. The continent is broadest in the northern part, and it has 
a remarkably even coastline with few good harbors. The mountains 
are different from those of any other continent. In the interior is 
a vast plateau, with a rim of low mountains around the edge, near 
the coast. The Atlas Range on the north reaches an altitude of 
14,000 feet, and the loftiest peaks are in the eastern and central 
parts of the continent, among the Ruwenzori and the Mountains 
of the Moon. The rivers all rise in the interior and have falls or 
rapids wherever they pass over the Fall line to the low land of the 
coast regions. For this reason they are not navigable for ocean 
going vessels, except for a few miles from the sea. This rim of 
highlands around the continent prevented the interior from being 
explored for many years after America was discovered and settled. 

The extreme northern and southern portions of the 
Climate con tinent have a warm temperate or semi-tropical 

climate, but most of this vast area lies within the tropics. The high¬ 
lands in the interior of the equatorial regions give that part of the 
continent an abundance of rain, and the forests and other vegetation 
rival in luxuriance that of the Amazon valley. With a few excep¬ 
tions, the northern and southern portions of the continent also have 
sufficient rainfall for agricultural purposes; but between these sec¬ 
tions, and the equatorial regions on the other side, are the great arid 
regions forming the Sahara on the north and the Kalahari Desert 
on the south. 


381 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


38 


49 


_ ^ A political map of Africa shows that nearly 

Political Divisions ,, ,. ,. ^ 

the entire continent is divided among Euro¬ 
pean powers. Morocco, Abyssinia and Liberia are the only inde¬ 
pendent states, and the Kongo Free State is a semi-dependency of 
Belgium. Of all the territory claimed by the different nations, 
France has the largest area, and some of the territory is valuable, 
but the British possessions are by far the most important, both on 
account of their resources and their strategic locations. 

For industrial and commercial purposes Africa can be consid¬ 
ered in three divisions: Northern Africa, which extends from the 
Mediterranean to the Soudan; Central Africa, from the Soudan to 
the Zambesi River, and Southern Africa, from the Zambesi to the 
Cape of Good Hope. 


NORTHERN AFRICA. 


COAST The ^ anc * ^ e ^ ween tlie Mediterranean and the 
COUNTRIES ^las Mountains is fertile, and produces cereals, 
semi-tropical and tropical fruits, cotton, coffee, 
vegetables, cacao and spices. All the surplus of these crops is 
shipped to Southern Europe, where it finds ready sale. Morocco 
is poorly governed and all industries are in a backward condition, 
but Algeria and Tunis, which are French colonies, have, under 
the protecting care of home government, become fairly prosperous. 
Algeria exports large quantities of cork, and much of the so-called 
French wine is produced here. Besides their own exports, these 
countries handle a lucrative caravan trade from the region south of 
the Sahara. Caravans bring ostrich plumes, gums, ivory and other 
tropical products, which are exchanged for cotton goods and other 
manufactures. 

The trade centers are Algiers, which is the financial center, 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


383 


EGYPT 


Oran, the most important seaport, and Tripoli, the center of the 
caravan trade, which receives about 10,000 camel loads of mer¬ 
chandise annually. Trade is principally in the hands of Arabs, who 
make regular trips between Tripoli and Timbuctoo and Lake Chad. 

Egypt is the most important country in Northern 
Africa. The fertile portions are confined to a few 

miles each side of the Nile, 
from which water for irrigation 
is supplied. The land is so 
well tilled that abundant crops 
are grown. Wheat, millet and 
cotton are the most important 
crops, and cotton is the leading 
article of export. The long 
fiber of Egyptian cotton rivals 
in quality the famous “sea 
island ” cotton of the United 
States, and for that reason 
large quantities of it are sent 
to this country each year for 
making thread. Rice is grown 
in large quantities, but not 
enough for the needs of the 
people. Wheat and beans are 
exported to Europe. Sugar-cane is raised, and considerable raw 
silk is produced. 

The cultivable area has recently been largely extended by the 
construction of two great dams across the Nile, one at Assuan, 
and the other at Assuit. The former is one of the finest pieces of 
engineering in the world, and will store sufficient water to irrigate 
2500 square miles of land. 

There are no mining or manufacturing industries of note, and 







384 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


cigarettes made from Turkish tobacco are the most important man¬ 
ufactured export. The leading trade is with Great Britain. The 
exports are agricultural products, and the imports manufactures, 
coal and lumber. Cairo is the largest city, and is at the head of 
the Nile Delta. Alexandria is the seaport through which the exports 
and imports pass. Port Said and Suez are at the opposite ends 



PORT SAID, THE NORTHERN ENTRANCE TO THE SUEZ CANAL 


of the Suez Canal. Khartum is the most important commercial 
center in the interior. A railway 1200 miles in length extends 
from Cairo to Khartum, and short branches have been constructed 
at frequent intervals to act as feeders of this line. About 4000 
ships pass through the Suez Canal each year, and seven out of 
every ten of these are British. 

Egypt formerly was a colony of Great Britain, which managed 








FRANCE 


RUSSIA 


‘IgradFN 


lack ' 
jtantinopl 


1ULGARIA )4 

: oSofi>^- 


TURKESTAN 


- Madrid/ 


SARDINIA 


4 € • ' 1 r 

'if 1 Algiers 5? 

< - 'll ?Trr - ' 

Oran Constantine 
Biskra^j, . 

LGERI 


. Tangier£f>|C^ 4 -y< 

/ (Infer 

Rab 3l* ■» #Fez 
-r^ A ' Mequinez 

MaeadoiF '• Morocco 

Agadeeyf MOROCCO 


CRETE*“ 

(Or.) 

Dema 




Tripoli 


Jerusalem 

■PALESTTNI 


Alexandria 


CANARY 


Gnadames 


.Tenduf 


La/Palmas 
C.Bajador ( 


Gatron 


Villa Cisnero 


“TROPIC 


Taiideni 


FRENCH WEST AFRICA 


Shingeti o 


CHAD, 1 


Tintellusto 


Bilma/ 


Tuahuninj 


MILITARY 


“imbukti 


NIGER' 


TERRITQRY 

oMao Ab^shr 
L. Tchad 

,_ol%S< V I 

X Kuka-^pL Massenya iM f, 

P° Mora^ A O < 

Yakuba 7° u 


^>-^Aden 


MI LI' 


RY TERR1TORIE: 
.^Huier o ■ ..ffurcaC 


El Fasher ! 

° ElObeido 

EGYPTIAN 

I O Shakka 


)KOTRA 

ila®^ 
luardafi t 


kkiVN- 

Rabb? 


H a?ar X$oAl a LI La ND r 


UPPER 


r GOLD fjo 
COAST? A®i_. 


Tibati 


\ S U N 

M Tam bu r a \ 

CLado 


UBANGI 


Fresco 


Kunde \ 
lueaKAMERUNl 
tDuala 

)Kribi ( CA ( 


^ Akassa^y*^^ 
FERNANDO POC 
PRINCES l.o 


Banzyville 


UGANDA f 


Bosoko 


[ogadisho 


EQUATOR 


Y nBukGbav. ^Nairobi 
) X ^wfyanza 
I ' r 20Mwanta N -» Voi i 
Mt.Kilimanjaro j*-.. O „a 
'ji)iT ? ^o™ p y sur Ta^W 


.Kindu 


Sette Carnal 1 


Mombasa 
Jpemba i. (Br) 
Jigani 

Zanzibar (Br) 
)ar es Salaam 


AMIRANTE 
IS. 
i (Br) 


arema' 


providence 

is. , . 

.. (Br) 


DABRA IS. 


foero 


Redondoj 

Jenguela^ 


iue/gaoj a- (sr)C. Amber i 

COMORO oA ; 

> * o is. ) 4 

[Luli ^ ( Fr ) dj i. i 
b ^ Analalavag — / jA 

Mozambiqu^^ojaSga/ 
KlShabo\ ' 


NORTHERN ® 

Broken Hill CX 


Mossai 


ST>HELENA I. a 
(Br) 


FQailimAne. A„ ta j 

iananv 

'hinde i ns 


Jamatave 


% oTsumehl Mihe za 1 
* QGroptfpntefo > 


SOUTH© WEST? 


[sao^ k/^o cv 

IBECHUANALAND' 
Palachwe. 
c PROT. 

Molopololi 0 jSL 


REUNION I.Q 


Tulear 


mrg d Inhambanj 


orenco Marqui 
LD. 


Pequenaw 

Kalkfoi 

Waft 

Pt.Nolloth' 


NATAL/ * 
Heiermaritzbu rg 


bpringwk Carnaryb 

VrfYictoria^ 
Calvima9 caJ>! 
Worcester O ^oot 
pe TownVL s^rt 

Vood Hope \ 


itown 


!as*t London 


\ o Teheran 
PERSIA 


-f 

V\V 

i Medina 


H 

✓ NTS 

1 % 

p M.e.cca 

•f \ 


G u If | 


Benitos 

ST.THOMAS ,. 0 ^ rhrtfv , ||(fJ . 

C. LopezS- 1GAFUN ' 

ANNOBON i. YFrancevilleO f ^ 

M 


EQUATOR 


ASCENSION l. 

* (Br.) 


AmbrizX 

St. Paul de Lc.anda 


TROPIC 


S\^akopmuni 
^SPRTCSH'N-r 


AFRICA 

The George F. Cram Co.. Chicago. 
SCALE OF MILES 


0 100 200 400 600 800 1000 


West 


■Longitude glO from 


iGreenwieh30 


East 
























































































































I 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


385 


all of its financial and commercial affairs and supervised its foreign 
relations, as well as the Suez Canal. 

As the mountainous regions in the north merge into 
the desert, so does the desert merge into the grassy 
plains of the Soudan. Commercially, this region is of but little 


SOUDAN 



A CARGO OF EARTHEN JARS, EGYPT 

importance. With the exception of Liberia on the western coast, 
the territory is divided between Great Britain and France, and in 
time portions of it will undoubtedly be developed, but the climate 
along the western coast is so unhealthful that white men can not 
live there. Most of the trade is from the interior and finds an 
outlet through the northern French colonies by means of caravans. 













386 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


CENTRAL AFRICA. 

This includes a region considerably larger than the United 
States. It has a tropical climate, abundant rainfall and, over 
much of its area, a luxuriant tropical vegetation. It has over 
1,000,000 square miles of dense forests, rivalling in the extent 
and value of their products those of the Amazon, and it is destined 
to become one of the great sources of the world’s timber supply. 



%- 

SCENE ON AN OSTRICH FARM 


As in the Soudan, the lowlands along the coast are unhealthful to 
white men, but in the interior the climate is more favorable and 
the development of the Kongo region shows that Europeans can live 
in the country with perfect safety. 


BELGIAN ^his coun ^ r y occupies a large portion of the basin of 
CONGO K° ng0 River and includes 900,000 square miles, 

and a population of 5,000,000 to 7,000,000. The Kongo 
and its tributaries provide over 6000 miles of navigable waterways, 





COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


387 


which enable the most important commercial sections to be reached 
by steamers. A railroad from Banana to Leopoldville, 249 miles, pro¬ 
vides transportation around the falls in the river. Another from 
Kabalo to Albertville on Lake Tanganyika connects the west coast 
of Africa with Belgian East Africa and the east coast. The Katanga 
Railway w T as completed to Bukama in 1918, forming connection with 

# 

the Cape-to-Cairo system. 

Since the World War, the country has been administered as a 
Colony of Belgium and rapid progress is being made in the develop¬ 
ment of its resources. Large copper mines have been developed in 
the southeastern part of the colony and mining is now the chief indus¬ 
try. Most of the work is in charge of American engineers. The export 
of rubber has decreased because of the destruction of most of the 
rubber trees. The region is well adapted to agriculture, which will 
probably receive attention at an early day. 

FRFNfH TONrO French Congo extends to the northeast from 

the Atlantic Coast and is bounded on the south 
by the Congo River, and on the north by the colony of Kamaroon. 
Its climate and products are in every way similar to those of the 
Belgian Congo. 

This large productive area lies northeast of Bel¬ 
gian Congo. It includes the East Africa Pro¬ 
tectorate, the Uganda Protectorate and the 
Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. The East Africa Protectorate has 
an area of about 247,000 square miles and a population of nearly 
3,000,000. The region is well adapted to agriculture. There is a 
railroad from Mombasa on the coast to Port Florence on Victoria 


BRITISH 
EAST AFRICA 


Nyanza, 600 miles distant. This road connects Uganda with the coast. 

These territories formerly comprised German East 

KENYA AND Africa. Durin S the World War the region was con ' 
TANGANYIKA quered by the British forces, and it is now under 

TERRITORY British control. The area is about 384,000 square 

miles and the population is estimated 7,660,000. The 


388 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


PORTUGUESE 

POSSESSIONS 


country is agricultural, and the chief exports are cotton, hides, wax, 
rubber and ivory. 

The Portuguese possessions lie south of the Kongo 
Free State and British East Africa. They are 
the remnants of territory claimed under explora¬ 
tions made a little before Columbus discovered America. The country 
on the west coast has never yet been developed in the least, except in 
the vicinity of a few towns which have fairly good harbors, but the 
east coast has a number of good harbors, which furnish the outlet for 
the trade from the interior, and this section has been opened to civili¬ 
zation more fully than that on the west. 


UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 

_ This Dominion of the British Empire includes the 

UNION OF 

cniIT „ .r D ,ri provinces of Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Transvaal, 
oUUlH ArKiLA _ . . „ i J . 

Orange F ree State and South-west Protectorate, for¬ 
merly German South West Africa, and a few other small political 
divisions. The total area is about 474,000 square miles and the popu¬ 
lation in 1921 was 5,973,394, of which 1,542,161 were white. The 
interior is too dry for successful agriculture, but it constitutes an 
excellent grazing country and sustains thousands of cattle, sheep and 
goats. South of the Orange River Colony there is more rainfall, and 
nearly all crops common to a temperate climate are raised. Fruits 
are grown profusely, and as they ripen during our winter months the 
grapes find a ready market in London and other English cities, to 
which they are sent in refrigerator ships. Wool, mohair, hides and 
leather are other agricultural exports. 

This is one of the richest mineral regions in the 
world. The diamond mines in Kimberley supply 
ninety-eight per cent of all the diamonds used, and the gold mines 
of the Transvaal, near Johannesburg, are the richest mines in the 
world, and their development is only just begun. Coal in abun- 


Minerals 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


389 


dance is also found in this region, but it has not yet been mined to 
any extent. 

Cape Town, at the southern extremity of the continent, 
Cities b e f ore the construction of the Suez Canal, was one of 

the most important ports of call in the world and now receives 
several thousand vessels every year. Johannesburg, next to 
Cairo, is the largest city of the continent. It has been built since 
the opening of the great mines in the Transvaal and is in every 
way a modern city of some over 100,000 inhabitants. Pretoria 
was the former capital of the Dutch Republic. Durban, Lourenco 
Marquez and Beira are important seaports on the eastern coast and 
each has a railway connection with the interior. Port Elizabeth, on 
the south coast, is the most important seaport. 

Zanzibar, on the island of the same name, opposite British 
East Africa, occupies a position in reference to this region some¬ 
what similar to that of Hongkong in reference to Asia. It is a 
British colony, but its government is administered by a sultan. 
The great island of Madagascar belongs to the French. 

RHODESIA Under this name is included the region extending 

from northwards to Belgian Congo and westward 
to Tanganyika Territory. It is under the administration of the British 
South Africa Company. For administrative purposes, it is divided 
into Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia. The entire area is 
440.000 square miles. The country is rich in minerals and agricul¬ 
tural resources. The Cape-to-Cairo Railway traverses Southern 
Rhodesia. 

Comparatively, the commerce of Africa is yet small. 
Commerce ^ on j y yfahm the last few years that by reason 

of its wonderful resources and possibilities the attention of the 
civilized nations has been turned to this continent. As these possi¬ 
bilities are becoming better known, the commerce is increasing, 
and the development in the near future will undoubtedly be much 


390 


COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 


more rapid than it has been in any equal period in the past. The 
great trunk line, known as the Cape-to-Cairo Railroad, has been 
projected, and about 1800 miles of the southern portion and 1200 
miles of the northern portion of it have already been constructed. 
Both in the South and in the North branches extend from this line 
to the coast towns, or into the fertile agricultural or mineral regions. 
An immense steel bridge has been completed across the gorge 
below Victoria Falls on the Zambesi. This bridge is one of the 
most remarkable feats of engineering in the world. It conducts 
one branch of this railway into a country rich in both agricultural 
and mineral resources. 

The Cape-to-Cairo telegraph is completed as far north as Lake 
Tanganyika, and south beyond Khartum. All important cities are 
also connected by telegraphic lines. Most of the trade is with the 
European countries, though the United States has exported to 
South Africa considerable quantities of railway supplies, hard¬ 
ware and electrical machinery. Africa has a vast population, 
which when once fully acquainted with the customs and usages of 
civilization, will create a demand for manufactures that cannot do 
otherwise than greatly stimulate the industries of all countries 
having commercial relations with the continent. 


QUESTIONS ' 

Which is the larger, Africa or North America? 

How do the climatic conditions in Africa compare with those in South 
America? 

Why was Africa so long neglected by the civilized nations? What nations 
now have a controlling influence in the affairs of the continent? 

With what European countries do the States of Northern Africa.engage in 
trade? What commodities are exchanged? 

How do the products of the Belgian Congo compare with those of the 
Amazon Basin? 


INDEX 


Adelaide, 378 
Afghanistan, 373 
Africa, 381-390 
Surface, 381 
Climate, 381 
Political Divisions, 382 
Agricultural Implements, 125 
Agriculture 
Canada, 231 
Argentina, 280 
United Kingdom, 289 
France, 306 
Italy, 320 
Poland, 338 
Russia, 349 
India, 358 
China, 365 
Japan, 367 
Australia, 371 
Alaska, 201 
Aluminum, 86 
Amsterdam, 314 
Anthracite, 97 
Argentina, 279-281 
Agriculture, 280 
Railways, 280 
Commerce, 281 
Asphalt, 265 
Athens, 333 
Attar of Roses, 333 
Australia, 375 
Austria, 328 
Automobiles, 131 
Bahamas, 287 
Baku, 355 
Baltic States, 346 
Baltimore, 162 
Baluchistan, 373 
Banks, 186 
Beef, 47 

Beets, Sugar, 62 
Belgian Congo, 386 
Belgium, 311 
Belgrade, 332 


Berlin, 303 
Boards of Trade, 191 
Bolivia, 259 
Bombay, 360 
Bonds, 190 

Boots and Shoes, 121 
Borneo, 374 
Boston, 161 
Brazil, 269-277 
Rubber, 271 
Sugar-cane, 272 
Coffee, 273 
Minerals, 275 
Railways, 276 
Waterways, 276 
Commerce, 277 
Brisbane, 378 
Brussels, 313 
Budapest, 330 
Buenos Aires, 280 
Buffalo, 166 
Building Stone, 105 
Bulgaria, 333 
Butter— See Dairying 
Buttons, 128 
By-Products, 130 
Calcutta, 360 
Cairo, 389 
Canada, 223-239 
Surface, 224 
Climate, 227 
Mining, 227 
Coal, 228 
Petroleum, 228 
Gold, 228 
Silver, 228 
Copper, 229 
Forests, 229 
Fisheries, 230 
Furs, 230 
Agriculturef 231 
Manufactures, 233 
Trade Centers, 238 
Railways. 235 

391 


392 


INDEX 


Canada— Continued 
Waterways, 236 
Commerce, 238 
Canals, 43, 145 
Germany, 302 
France, 307 
China, 363 
Canals, Ship, 151 
Canton, 364 
Cape Cod Canal, 151 
Cape-to-Cairo Railroad, 390 
Cape Town, 389 
Cement, 107 
Cheese— See Dairying 
Chicago, 177-184 
Location, 177 
Transportation, 181 
Trade, 182 

Chicago Drainage Canal, 149 
Chile, 262 
China, 361-366 

Position and Extent, 361 
Agriculture, 361 
Minerals, 362 
Manufactures, 363 
Transportation, 363 
Cities, 364 
Commerce, 364 
People, 365 
Christiania, 318 
Cincinnati, 167 
Cities, 153-168 
Plan of, 156 
Clay, 106 

Cleaning House, 187 
Cleveland, 166 
Climate, 1-4 
Coffee 

Brazil, 273 
East Indies, 374 
Coal, 93-100 
Varieties, 96 
Mining, 98 
Uses, 99 
Production, 100 
Canada, 228 


Coal— Continued 
“United Kingdom, 290 
In Ukraine, 340 
Russia, 350 
China, 362 
Australia, 377 
Coke, 99 
Colombia, 254 
Commerce, 4, 5, 211 
Canada, 238 
Brazil, 277 
Argentina, 281 
United Kingdom, 295 
France, 309 
Italy, 323 

Czecho-Slovakia, 327 
Roumania, 337 
Poland, 339 
Ukraine, 341 
Russia, 356 
India, 360 
China, 364 
Japan, 370 
Australia, 378 
Africa, 389 
Communication, 151 
Constantinople, 343, 345 
Copper, 83 

United Kingdom, 291 
Germany, 301 
Copenhagen, 316 
Corporations, 189 
Corinth Ship Canal, 332 
Corn, 35-43 
History, 35 
Corn Belt, 35 
Harvesting, 39 
Uses, 39 
Production, 41 
Costa Rica, 247 
Cotton, 55-62 
History, 55 
Varieties, 56 
Cotton Belt, 58 
Value, 61 

Manufacture of, 118 


INDEX 


393 


Cotton— Con t inued 
England, 291 
Brazil, 272 
India, 359 
China, 362 
Cuba, 285 

Czecho-Slovakia, 325 
Dairying, 45 

Canada, 231, 232 
Danzig, 339 
Denmark, 315 
Duluth, 165 
Detroit, 166 
East Indies, 374 
Ecuador, 257 
Egypt, 383 

Electrical Appliances, 126 
Erie Canal, 149 
Esthonia, 346 
Exports, 212 
Finland, 346 
Fisheries, 63-66 
Canada, 230 
France, 306 
Flour 

Manufacture of, 29 
Forestry, 75 
Forests, 67-76 
Use, 70 
Products, 73 
Value, 73 
Canada, 229 
Germany, 301 
Poland, 338 
Australia, 377 
Fort William, 232 
France, 305-310 
Agriculture, 306 
Fisheries, 306 
Minerals, 306 
Manufactures, 307 
Railways, 307 
Canals, 307 
Cities, 308 
Commerce, 309 
Rehabilitation, 310 


French Congo, 387 
Furs, 120 

Canada, 231 
Genoa, 323 
Germany, 299-304 
Location, 299 
Agriculture, 299 
Forests, 301 
Minerals, 301 
Manufactures, 301 
Transportation, 301 
Cities, 303 

Present Conditions, 303 
Gloves, 127 
Gold. 81 

Canada, 228 
Brazil, 275 
Ural Mountains, 350 
Australia, 377 
Grand Canal 
China, 363 
Granite, 105 
Graphite, 108 
Greece, 332 
Guam, 210 
Guiana, 267 
Halifax, 236 
Havana, 286 
Hawaii, 204 
Holland, 314 
Honduras, 247 
Hongkong, 366 
Hungary, 329 
Immigration, 199 
Imports, 213 
India, 357 
Industries, 4 
Iron, 86-90 
China, 362 
Italy, 320 
Jamaica, 287 
Japan, 367-372 

Position and Extent, 367 
Agriculture, 367 
Minerals, 368 
Manufactures, 369 


394 

Japan —Continued 

Transportation, 370 
Cities, 370 
Commerce, 370 
People, 371 
Java, 374 
Jugo-Slavia, 331 
Kansas City, 167 
Kenya, 387 
Kiel Canal, 151 
Kiev, 341 
Kobe, 370 
Korea, 372 
Lakes, 143 
Latvia, 346 
Lead, 85 
Leather, 120 
Leeds, 291 
Linen, 120 
Lithuania, 346 
Live Stock, 45 
Marketing, 49 

Slaughtering and Packing, 50 
Value, 51 
London, 293 
Lumber, 68-72 
Canada, 229 
Madras, 360 

Manchester, England, 291 
Manufactures, 109-114 
Power, 110 
Centers, 112 
United States, 113 
Canada, 233 
France, 307 
Czecho-Slovakia, 326 
Austria, 328 
Hungary, 330 
Poland, 339 
Ukraine, 340 
Russia, 350 
India, 358 
China, 363 
Japan, 369 
Marble, 105 
Italy, 321 


INDEX 

Mauretania, 150 
Melbourne, 377 
Mercury, 86 
Mexico, 241-245 
Milan, 323 
Milwaukee, 165 
Mining, 77-80 
Mittens, 127 
Money, 185 
Montreal, 238 
Moscow, 355 
Mutton, 48 
Nagasaki, 370 
Natural Gas, 103 
Needles, 128 
Newfoundland, 239 
New Guinea, 374 
New Orleans, 163 
New York, 169-177 
Location, 169 
Plan, 169 

Transportation, 173 
Manufactures, 175 
Trade, 177 
New Zealand, 378 
Nickel, 229 
Nijni-Novgorod, 355 
Northern Africa, 382 
Norway and Sweden, 316 
Oats, 62 

Ocean Routes, 149 

Odessa, 341 

Ore, 81 

Ottawa, 239 

Panama, 252 

Panama Canal, 15, 293 

Paraguay, 283 

Paris, 308 

Pork, 48 

Pens, 129 

Pencils, 129 

Peru, 257 

Peking, 364 

Persia, 374 

Petrograd, 355 


INDEX 


395 


Petroleum, 100 
Canada, 228 
Poland, 338 
Russia, 355 
Philadelphia, 163 
Philippine Islands, 205 
Pins, 128 
Pittsburgh, 188 
Platinum 

Ural Mountains, 350 
Poland, 337 
Port Arthur, 232 
Port Elizabeth, 389 
Porto Rico, 202 

Portugal— See Spain and Portugal 
Portuguese Possessions, 388 
Pretoria, 389 
Printing, 122 
Railroads, 135 

Groups, 138-141 
Canada, 235 
India, 259 
Argentina, 280 
United Kingdom, 295 
Germany, 303 
France, 307 
Italy, 322 

Czecho-Slovakia, 327 
Russia, 353 
China, 364 
Japan, 370 
Remittances, 193 
Rhodesia, 389 
Rice, 62 

Brazil, 272 
China, 361 
Japan, 367 
Riga, 346 
Rio Janeiro, 277 
Rivers, 141 
Roads, 133 
Rome, 322 
Roumania, 335 
R UBBER 

Brazil, 271 

Boots and Shoes, 127 


Russia, 349-356 

Position and Extent, 349 
Russia in Europe, 349 
Minerals, 350 
Manufactures, 350 
Railways, 353 
Cities, 355 
Commerce, 356 
St. Louis, 166 
St. Paul, 167 
Salt, 107 

Poland, 338 
Salvador, 247 
San Domingo, 287 
San Francisco, 164 
Sault Ste. Marie Canal, 146 
Seattle, 165 
Ship Canals, 151 
Siam, 373 
Siberia, 351 
Silk, 119 
Italy, 321 
China, 362 
Japan, 368 
Silver, 82 

Canada, 228 
Singapore, 360 
Slate, 106 

Slaughtering and Packing, 50 
Soil, 4 
Sudan, 385 

South America, 249-283 
Surface, 249 
Climate, 250 
People, 251 
Government, 251 
Spain and Portugal, 319 
Steel, 90-92 
Stock Exchange, 191 
Stockholm, 318 
Straits Settlements, 360 
Suez Canal, 151 
Sugar Cane, 62 
Sugar Beets, 62 
Sumatra, 374 

Sweden— See Norway and Sweden 


396 


INDEX 


Switzerland, 324 
Sydney, 377 
Syria, 345 

Tanganyika Territory, 387 
Tea 

India, 358 
China, 361 
Japan, 367 
Textiles, 115-120 
History, 116 
Cotton, 118 
Woolen, 118 
Silks, 119 
Linen, 120 
England, 291 
Japan, 369 
Telegraph, 151 
Telephone, 152 
Tientsin, 364 
Tin 

United Kingdom, 291 
Tokio, 370 
Trans-Caspia, 351 
Trans-Caucasia, 351 
Transportation, 6 
Transportation, 214 
Trans-Siberian Railway, 353 
Turkey, 343 
Tutuila, 210 

United Kingdom, 289-297 
Location, 289 
Political Divisions, 289 
Agriculture, 289 
Fisheries, 290 
Coal, 290 
Tin, 291 
Copper, 291 
Manufactures, 291 
Cities, 293 
Transportation, 295 
Commerce, 295 
United States 
Position, 7 

Physical Features, 7-17 
Climate, 17 
Rainfall, 19 


United States— Continued 

Production of Wheat, 25 
Coal Industries, 195 
Transportation, 196 
Grain, 196 
Cotton, 196 
Live Stock, 197 
Manufactures, 197 
Mineral Fuels, 197 
Ore, 198 

Iron and Steel, 198 
Coastwise Trade, 198 
Growth of Cities, 199 
Commercial Growth, 217-221 
Ukraine, 340 

Union of South Africa, 388 
Uruguay, 282 
Venezuela, 265 
Venice, 323 
Vienna, 329 
Virgin Islands, 256, 287 
Vladivostock, 353 
Warsaw, 339 
Watches, 129 
Waterways 
Inland, 141 
Russia, 353 
Welland Canal, 151 
Wheat, 21-33 

Winter Wheat, 23, 28 
Spring Wheat, 23, 25 
Wheat Countries, 25 
Production, United States, 25 
Transportation, 29 
Flour, 29 
Canada, 232 
Argentina, 280 
Winnipeg, 239 
Wool, 48 

Argentina, 280 
Australia, 377 
Woolens, 118 
England, 291 
Yokohama, 370 
Zanzibar, 389 
Zinc, 85 













































































































































V 


































































































































































